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2024
Environ Toxicol Pharmacol
A comprehensive review examines endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) classified as carcinogens—compounds recognized for decades as top priority toxicants and persistent organic pollutants due to their ability to disrupt endocrine signaling—analyzing their hazard identification, human exposure routes, carcinogenic potency, and mechanisms of action across different organs. The review discusses major endocrine-disrupting carcinogens and their cancer-causing potential while identifying critical research gaps, methodological bottlenecks, and limitations in analytical detection techniques. This analysis underscores the serious public health concern posed by EDCs with carcinogenic properties, highlighting the need for improved understanding of their mechanisms, better analytical methods for detection and measurement, and addressing research limitations to protect human health from these ubiquitous environmental contaminants that can both disrupt hormonal systems and initiate cancer development.
2024
Toxicol Lett
A meta-analysis of 15 studies including 3,468 cancer cases and 4,187 controls found that brominated flame retardant (BFR) exposure in adipose tissue was significantly associated with increased breast cancer risk, though no association was observed for thyroid cancer. The analysis revealed that BFR exposure generally elevates the risk of endocrine-related cancers, with BDE-28—a lower-brominated congener—showing particularly strong associations with increased cancer risk. These findings identify BFRs as a significant environmental risk factor for breast cancer and suggest that certain BFR congeners may be more carcinogenic than others, though the authors emphasize the need for further research to establish causal mechanisms and clarify how these ubiquitous flame retardant chemicals disrupt endocrine function to promote cancer development.
2024
Front Public Health
DDT, a highly persistent organochlorine pesticide comprising mainly p,p’-DDT (77%) and o,p’-DDT (15%), was widely used in agriculture and disease vector control with India being the primary consumer for malaria and leishmaniasis control, though global usage declined from ~5,388 metric tons annually (2001-2007) to ~3,772 metric tons (2008-2014) following the Stockholm Convention. As a xenoestrogen that bioaccumulates in fatty tissues and breast milk, DDT disrupts the endocrine system and enters the human circulatory system, causing reproductive toxicity, increased cancer risk (particularly threatening infants consuming contaminated breast milk), and carcinogenic effects, while also devastating wildlife populations through eggshell thinning in birds like pelicans and eagles. Prolonged DDT exposure causes cumulative toxicity that can alter morphogenesis, induce cancer, and cause reproductive system failure, yet its exceptional persistence and resistance to biodegradation means it continues to accumulate in the food chain and pose ongoing health threats despite reduced usage.
2024
Int J Environ Res Public Health
A systematic review of 25 epidemiological studies (2013-2022) found that seven out of eight investigated outdoor air pollutants showed significant associations with increased breast cancer risk, with benzo[a]pyrene showing the strongest relationship. The review found that 100% of studies examining nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), 83% of PM₂.₅ studies, 69% of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) studies, and 43% of PM₁₀ studies demonstrated positive associations with breast cancer risk, with hazard ratios ranging from 1.05-1.56 and odds ratios from 1.03-1.86, while ozone and cadmium showed negative or no associations. These findings strengthen the evidence that outdoor air pollution—particularly traffic-related pollutants and fine particulate matter—contributes to breast cancer development, though the authors note that further research is needed to establish causal mechanisms, particularly through epigenetic pathways, and acknowledge that the review’s focus on English-language articles from developed countries may limit generalizability.
2024
Environ Health Perspect
Researchers analyzed 279 chemicals known to cause mammary tumors in rodents and identified 642 additional chemicals that activate estrogen or progesterone signaling, finding that tumor-causing chemicals were significantly more likely to stimulate hormone production, activate estrogen receptors, or damage DNA—characteristics that likely increase breast cancer risk in humans. The study found that more mammary carcinogens worked by increasing hormone production than by directly activating estrogen receptors, with chemicals showing stronger hormone-disrupting effects being most likely to cause tumors, demonstrating a clear dose-response relationship. These findings suggest that hundreds of chemicals currently in use may pose unrecognized breast cancer risks and should not be assumed safe without specific testing for breast effects, with the strongest evidence chemicals prioritized for exposure reduction and improved testing methods needed to identify additional hazardous substances. The research provides a framework for identifying and regulating chemicals that may contribute to breast cancer through hormone disruption and genetic damage—mechanisms supported by both animal and human studies.
2023
Chemosphere
A community-based intervention study (REDUXE) examined the effects of discontinuing paraben and phthalate-containing personal care products over 28 days by collecting paired fine needle aspirates of breast tissue from healthy volunteers before and after intervention, finding striking reversal of cancer-associated phenotypes including PI3K-AKT/mTOR pathway alterations, autophagy, and apoptotic signaling networks, along with significant reductions in urinary paraben and phthalate metabolites. Post-intervention breast tissue showed “normalizing” changes in estrogen-modulated gene expression pathways, estrogen receptor alpha:beta ratios, and cell cycle S-phase fraction when treated with 17β-estradiol in vitro, demonstrating functional improvement in cellular responses. This paradigm-shifting study reveals that persistent exposure to xenoestrogens from daily-use personal care products produces unfavorable pro-carcinogenic cellular changes in human breast tissue that can be reversed through short-term avoidance, suggesting that reducing xenoestrogen exposure from consumer products may suppress cancer-promoting phenotypes and represents a viable approach for breast cancer prevention.
2023
Res Square
A study of 104 drinking water sources across Iranian cities found dangerous levels of arsenic and chromium exceeding safety standards in some locations, with the highest arsenic concentrations in Bashet (15.47 µg/L) and chromium in Behmai (292.21 µg/L), both significantly above acceptable limits. Health risk assessments showed that arsenic exposure in Bashet and chromium exposure in Behmai posed definite cancer risks (risk factors exceeding 1), with cancer risks from contaminated drinking water confirmed in multiple cities including Bashet, Gachsaran, and Behmai. These findings highlight a serious public health concern, as chronic exposure to these carcinogenic heavy metals through drinking water can increase risks for various cancers including breast cancer, underscoring the urgent need for water treatment interventions and alternative water sources in affected communities.
2023
Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev
A pooled analysis of six European cohorts including 199,719 women followed for 3.6 million person-years found that long-term exposure to fine particulate matter (PM₂.₅) was associated with a 6% increased breast cancer risk per 5 μg/m³ increase. The association was strongest among middle-aged women (ages 50-54) and never-smokers, and notably, the cohorts studied represented the lower range of air pollution concentrations in Europe, suggesting that even relatively low levels of air pollution may contribute to breast cancer risk. These findings add to mounting evidence that air pollution—particularly fine particulate matter from traffic, industry, and combustion sources—is an environmental breast cancer risk factor operating independently of established risk factors, with important implications for public health policy, urban planning, and air quality regulations aimed at reducing population-level cancer burden, especially given that air pollution exposure is largely involuntary and affects entire populations.
2023
Environ Res
A meta-analysis of 17 epidemiological studies examining cadmium exposure and breast cancer risk found no statistically significant associations overall or when examining specific exposure routes separately (dietary cadmium or biomarker-based studies), with substantial heterogeneity between studies and no clear patterns by menopausal status. The inconclusive findings leave critical questions about whether specific exposure routes (occupational, air pollution, smoking) pose different risks than dietary intake or whether residual confounding by tobacco smoke constituents may influence observed associations. These results highlight the need for future research with better exposure assessment methods that can distinguish between different cadmium sources and routes of exposure, particularly occupational and environmental air pollution exposures that may be more relevant than diet for populations living near industrial areas where cadmium contamination is prevalent.
2023
J Natl Cancer Inst
A large cohort study of 451,945 National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study participants used EPA Toxics Release Inventory data to estimate historical environmental ethylene oxide (EtO) exposures based on proximity to EtO-emitting facilities, wind patterns, and emission levels from enrollment in 1995-1996. Among 173,670 postmenopausal women, living within 10 km of EtO facilities was associated with statistically significant breast cancer risk for invasive disease (HR = 1.03; 95% CI: 0.97-1.09); women in the highest quartile of the airborne emissions index showed elevated risk of in situ breast cancer at 10 km (HR = 1.25; 95% CI: 1.02-1.53), with no clear patterns for non-Hodgkin lymphoma risk. These findings reveal a novel potential association between environmental EtO exposure and in situ breast cancer—but not invasive breast cancer or lymphohematopoietic cancers—contrasting with occupational studies that found associations with invasive disease. The differential association with in situ versus invasive disease suggests EtO may influence early-stage breast carcinogenesis, though the mechanism remains unclear and warrants further investigation to understand why environmental exposures show different patterns than occupational exposures and why the effect appears limited to pre-invasive lesions.
2023
Gut Microbes
A mouse study revealed that Vitamin D receptor (VDR) deficiency in the gut lining leads to bacterial imbalance (dysbiosis), increased intestinal permeability (“leaky gut”), and bacterial migration to breast tissue, significantly increasing breast tumor formation. Mice lacking intestinal VDR developed larger and more numerous breast tumors, with harmful bacteria like Streptococcus found in the tumor tissue, while beneficial bacteria that normally protect against cancer were depleted. However, treatment with butyrate (a beneficial bacterial byproduct) or the probiotic Lactobacillus plantarum reduced breast tumors by restoring gut barrier function and reducing inflammation, demonstrating a direct gut-breast axis. These findings suggest that maintaining gut health through adequate Vitamin D, beneficial bacteria, and a healthy microbiome may be a promising strategy for breast cancer prevention, though human studies are needed to confirm these results.
2023
Reprod Toxicol
A review of epidemiologic literature examining environmental chemical exposures during pregnancy and three maternal health outcomes (preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, and breast cancer) found that pregnancy represents a unique critical period when biological changes can heighten women’s susceptibility to chemicals from air, food, water, and consumer products—including flame retardants, plasticizers, pesticides, and lead—though research has disproportionately focused on fetal outcomes rather than maternal health risks, which remain poorly characterized for most chemicals. While evidence shows that lead exposure increases risk of pregnancy-induced hypertensive disorders and pregnancy can amplify women’s vulnerability to environmental chemicals, variations in study design, exposure assessment methods, and inconsistent adjustment for confounders limited comparability across studies. The authors emphasize that future research must recognize pregnancy as a critical window for women’s lifelong health, calling for incorporation of biomarkers of exposure and effect, deliberate timing and methods of measurement, and consistent confounder adjustment to strengthen understanding of the pregnancy exposome and its impacts on maternal health outcomes beyond the immediate postpartum period.
2023
Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am
Multiple social and structural determinants of health undoubtedly contribute to the marked racial/ethnic-, gender-, and socioeconomic-based disparities in endocrine health; however, the contribution of environmental injustice is vastly underappreciated. Indeed, those groups disproportionately burdened by endocrine disorders are often exposed to higher levels of various EDCs, including PCBs, phthalates, bisphenols, OC pesticides, air pollutants, PFASs, toxic metals/metalloids, and BFRs. These chemicals threaten our reproductive and metabolic health, contributing to diabetes prevalences, obesity, and disorders related to hormonal regulation. This review increases awareness of these disparities and encouraged equitable healthcare for those who are disadvantaged.
2023
Environ Sci Technol
The following study discusses a strategic framework to improve how chemicals are managed in North America. The Essential-Use Approach is a policy that prioritizes restricting the use of chemicals based on necessity and safety. It proposes three guiding questions: Is the chemical essential to the product’s function? Is it the safest option? Is it necessary for health and safety? They also prioritize speed of assesments so that chemicals can be quickly phased out if evidence suggests danger to human health. This study is a call for change and aims to become a tool to simplify decision-making for regulating organizations, help businesses avoid liability related to harmful chemicals, and ultimately improve public health by ensuring only the safest substances are used in consumer products.
2022
Environ Int
A large prospective study within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort examined 318,607 women from nine European countries over a median 14.9 years of follow-up, identifying 13,241 incident invasive breast cancer cases, to assess whether dietary intake of 17 dioxins and 35 polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs)—persistent organic pollutants with endocrine-disrupting and carcinogenic properties—was associated with breast cancer risk. Dietary exposures to dioxins, dioxin-like PCBs (DL-PCBs), non-dioxin-like PCBs (NDL-PCBs), and combined dioxins + DL-PCBs showed no associations with breast cancer incidence (all HRs approximately 1.00-1.01 per 1 SD increase), with results remaining consistent when analyzed by quintile groups, by country, by estrogen receptor status, or after adjusting for contributing food groups and nutritional factors. These findings from one of the largest prospective studies on this topic do not support an association between dietary intake of dioxins and PCBs—the main exposure route for these chemicals in the general population—and breast cancer risk. Despite the established endocrine-disrupting properties of these pollutants and some previous suggestions of positive associations, this comprehensive European study provides reassuring evidence that typical dietary exposures to dioxins and PCBs are not linked to increased breast cancer incidence.
2022
Nutr Cancer
An updated meta-analysis of 21 studies including over 346,000 participants found that the most pro-inflammatory diets were associated with a 16% increased breast cancer risk overall, with particularly strong associations among postmenopausal women (13% increased risk), obese women with BMI ≥30 kg/m² (35% increased risk), and populations in developing countries (79% increased risk). The analysis revealed important methodological influences on effect estimates, with stronger associations observed in case-control studies (50% increased risk), studies using hospital-based controls (111% increased risk), and cohort studies with prolonged follow-up (13% increased risk). These findings not only confirm that pro-inflammatory dietary patterns increase breast cancer risk but also demonstrate that the magnitude of association varies substantially by population characteristics and study design, with obesity and postmenopausal status appearing to amplify the carcinogenic effects of inflammatory diets—suggesting that anti-inflammatory dietary interventions may be particularly beneficial for overweight/obese postmenopausal women and populations in developing countries where rapid dietary transitions toward processed, inflammatory foods are occurring.
Risk of breast cancer in Danish women occupationally exposed to organic solvents, including ethanol.
2022
Am J Indust Med
A Danish nested case-control study of 845 breast cancer patients and 1,500 matched controls found that occupational exposure to organic solvents was associated with a 220% increased breast cancer risk among ever-exposed women compared to never-exposed women. The elevated risk was observed across all breast cancer subtypes—both estrogen receptor-positive and negative tumors—and in both pre- and postmenopausal women, though surprisingly, no dose-response relationship was detected with duration or cumulative exposure levels. Occupational ethanol exposure showed no association with breast cancer, suggesting that specific properties of other organic solvents may drive the carcinogenic effect, and highlighting the need for workplace protections and further research to identify which solvent types pose the greatest risk.
2022
Eur J Epidemiol
A comprehensive study combining meta-analysis of observational data with genetic (Mendelian randomization) analysis found that each 10 grams per day increase in alcohol consumption was associated with a 4% increased breast cancer risk, and importantly, genetic predisposition to problematic alcohol use showed a 76% increased risk even after accounting for alcohol quantity consumed. The study identified four specific DNA methylation sites (epigenetic modifications) affected by alcohol—near the CDC7, ZNF318, RIN3, and RP11-867G23.13 genes—where alcohol-induced changes were causally linked to increased breast cancer risk, providing mechanistic insight into how alcohol drives carcinogenesis. These findings confirm that even low-dose alcohol consumption increases breast cancer risk and suggest that the harm stems not just from the amount consumed but from pathological drinking patterns and specific epigenetic changes that could serve as targets for prevention strategies.
2022
Molec Carcinogen
A case-control study of 708 breast cancer patients and 598 controls from Long Island found that paraben exposure—particularly methylparaben—was associated with significantly increased breast cancer risk among women with hypomethylated (undermethylated) DNA, showing a 46% increased risk in the highest versus lowest exposure group and a 32% increased risk per one-quantile increase in combined paraben exposure. Importantly, paraben exposure was specifically associated with breast tumors characterized by hypomethylation of the CCND2 gene promoter, with methylparaben showing a 25% increased risk and combined parabens showing a 55% increased risk for this tumor subtype. These findings suggest that parabens—ubiquitous preservatives in personal care products—may contribute to breast cancer development through epigenetic mechanisms, particularly in women with pre-existing DNA methylation abnormalities, identifying a potentially vulnerable subpopulation and a specific molecular pathway through which these chemicals may promote carcinogenesis.
2022
BMP Nutr Prev Health
A recent study found that ultra-processed food intake is associated with an increased risk of breast cancer in young women across Latin American countries. The study, involving 525 cases and 525 controls, revealed that major contributors to ultra-processed food intake included ready-to-eat meals, sugary beverages, processed meats, and packaged snacks. Ultra-processed foods are rich in unhealthy fats, sugars, and additives that may drive cancer risk. This highlights the need to reduce ultra-processed food consumption and promote healthier, whole-food diets as a preventative measure, especially among young women in Latin America.
2022
Chemosphere
A study analyzing 12 commercial bottled water brands found that all tested products contained 2-6 different phthalate chemicals at concentrations ranging from 6.3 to 112.2 ng/mL, with di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) showing the highest levels followed by DEHP, DiBP, DMP, DEP, and DiPP. Using an optimized solid-phase microextraction method combined with tandem mass spectrometry, researchers detected these endocrine-disrupting chemicals—which leach from plastic bottles into drinking water—at levels detectable with limits as low as 0.3-2.6 ng/mL. These findings raise significant public health concerns given that phthalates are recognized endocrine disruptors with estrogenic properties that have been linked to breast cancer and other hormone-related health effects, and that billions of people worldwide consume bottled water daily with cumulative lifetime exposures potentially reaching harmful levels, highlighting the urgent need for regulatory limits on phthalates in bottled water and increased adoption of alternative packaging materials that don’t leach endocrine-disrupting chemicals.
2021
Int J Environ Res Pubilc Health
A case-control study of 494 breast cancer cases and 515 healthy controls in Poland’s Lodz region (2015-2019) found that night shift work was the third most important breast cancer risk factor after high BMI and short/no breastfeeding, ranking before early menstruation, late menopause, nulliparity, and smoking. Night work increased breast cancer risk 2.34-fold, with high-intensity night work showing an even greater 2.66-fold increase, and the harmful effects were influenced by intensity, frequency, rotation patterns, and cumulative years of night shift exposure. The findings support the IARC’s 2019 classification of night shift work as probably carcinogenic (Group 2A) and emphasize the need for ergonomic recommendations to minimize breast cancer risk among night shift workers through optimized scheduling practices.
2021
Int J Health Geogr
A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of 17 studies found that exposure to light at night (LAN)—both outdoor and indoor—was associated with an 11% increased breast cancer risk overall, with slightly stronger associations in premenopausal women (16% increased risk) and ER-positive breast cancers (9% increased risk). The dose-response analysis of outdoor LAN showed a linear relationship up to 40 nW/cm²/sr, after which the curve flattened, particularly among premenopausal women, suggesting a threshold effect. These findings provide the first comprehensive dose-response assessment of the LAN-breast cancer relationship and support growing concerns about light pollution as an environmental breast cancer risk factor, with implications for urban planning, building design, and personal light exposure habits—particularly for younger women who appear most vulnerable to the carcinogenic effects of circadian disruption from artificial light exposure at night.
2021
Oncol Rep
A review of organophosphorus pesticides (OPs)—among the most commonly used insecticides—and their association with hormone-mediated cancer found that OPs combined with estrogen induce transformation events in human breast epithelial cells, with in vitro studies showing these substances cause genomic instability through inactivation of tumor-suppressor genes and activation of oncogenes. Studies using immortalized non-tumorigenic human breast epithelial cell lines (MCF-10F) demonstrated that OPs like malathion and parathion, particularly in the presence of estrogen, affect cell cycle regulation, epidermal growth factor signaling pathways, drug metabolism, and genomic stability, leading to cellular transformation and signs of carcinogenesis. The findings suggest hormone-mediated carcinogenic effects of these widely used insecticides on breast cancer risk in women, with experimental models revealing the multistep process by which normal breast cells transform into malignant ones through combined exposure to environmental pesticides and estrogen, providing mechanistic insights into how occupational and environmental OP exposure may contribute to breast cancer development.
2021
BMC Complement Med Ther
This study focused on the effect that tartrazine (E102), a common yellow food dye, had on the progression of breast cancer in rats that were exposed to 7,12-Dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA), a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) that is widely known for its carcinogenicity. The researchers discovered that tartrazine accelerated the development and growth of tumors in the rats with 100% of rats having early incidents of breast cancer when exposed to both DMBA and tartrazin, and only 80% having early incidence when exposed to DMBA alone. The authors also hypothesized that tartrazine could cause oxidative stress, leading to DNA damage by producing Reactive Oxygen Species. These results may apply to humans as well, and raise concerns about the safety of prolonged or high-dose exposure to synthetic food dyes like tartrazine, especially in individuals who may already have other risk factors for cancer.
2021
Water Res
A study of 101 bottled water products sold in the US found that PFAS chemicals were detected in 39% of tested products at concentrations ranging from 0.17 to 18.87 ng/L (median 0.98 ng/L), with 97% of samples below 5 ng/L, though some products approached levels of regulatory concern. Spring water products contained significantly higher PFAS levels than purified water, with reverse osmosis (RO) treatment—used in 71% of purified waters but only 2% of spring waters—effectively removing PFAS contamination across all chain lengths. Notably, perfluoropropanoic acid (PFPrA), an ultrashort-chain PFAS measured for the first time in bottled water, accounted for 42% of detected PFAS mass and was found almost exclusively in spring water products, raising concerns given the lack of enforceable PFAS regulations for bottled water in the US despite these “forever chemicals” being linked to multiple health concerns including potential breast cancer risk, and highlighting the need for mandatory PFAS monitoring and disclosure requirements for bottled water manufacturers.
2020
Food Chem Tox
This article discusses the harmful impacts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) found in deep-fried foods. It highlights their endocrine-disrupting, genotoxic, and carcinogenic abilities when oils used for deep frying are heated repeatedly or at high temperatures. PAHs disrupt steroidogenic pathways which can lead to hormonal imbalances of estrogen and testosterone causing lower sperm quality, estrogenic effects, and endocrine related disorders. Furthermore, PAHs are linked to increased cancer risks through genotoxicity which can cause mutations in the cell. Organ sites that can be affected by this cancer risk are the breast, prostate, colorectal, renal, and pancreas.
2020
Environ Res
A systematic review of 100 publications across 56 epidemiologic studies found that research enriched with women at higher baseline breast cancer risk—through family history, early-onset disease, or genetic susceptibility—consistently showed stronger and more frequent associations between environmental chemical exposures and breast cancer compared to average-risk populations. Specifically, 80% of studies enriched with family history or early-onset cases showed significant associations with exposures including PAHs, air pollution, DDT, PCBs, PFAS, metals, personal care products, and occupational chemicals, while 74% of studies examining genetic susceptibility found significant gene-environment interactions for various pollutants in women with variants affecting carcinogen metabolism, DNA repair, and oxidative stress. These findings suggest that the inconsistent evidence for environmental chemicals and breast cancer in the literature may partly stem from studying predominantly average-risk populations who may be less susceptible to environmental carcinogens, highlighting the critical need for future research to focus on high-risk populations and measure exposures during key windows of susceptibility (puberty, pregnancy, menopause) to more accurately capture the role of environmental chemicals in breast cancer development.
2019
J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol
This study from a longitudinal cohort of 133 women diagnosed with breast cancer before age 50 and 133 age-matched controls without breast cancer. DDT is stored in adipose tissue, and the authors found that serum DDE (the main metabolite of DDT) was inversely associated with BMI amont women who were cancer-free, but that this association did not hold among women diagnosed with breast cancer before age 50. The authors suggest that early exposure to breast cancer among women exposed to DDT may be due to an uncoupling of the relationship between BMI and serum DDT, and that this may reveal biomarkers of risk through further research.
2019
Environ Int
A systematic review of 342 peer-reviewed articles covering 202 unique chemicals used in consumer products analyzed exposure pathways, functional uses, product applications, exposure routes, and associated health risks, finding that phthalates, bisphenol-A, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers were the most frequently studied chemicals, with frequently reported uses including plasticizers, polymers/monomers, and flame retardants in food contact materials, personal care products, cosmetics, furniture, flooring, and electronics. The analysis revealed that publication volume on chemicals tends to surge following major regulatory changes or exposure incidents rather than before market introduction, indicating a reactive rather than proactive approach to chemical safety assessment. These findings highlight the critical gap between the increasingly diverse array of chemicals used in consumer products and our lagging understanding of their exposure pathways and human health risks, emphasizing the urgent need to develop capacity and mechanisms for identifying health risks prior to chemical releases rather than after exposure incidents or regulatory action, to enable preventive rather than reactive public health protection.
2018
Maturitas
A Spanish population-based case-control study of 1,006 breast cancer cases and 1,370 controls found that high total meat intake was associated with a 39% increased breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women, with processed/cured meat showing a 47% increased risk overall and a striking 152% increased risk specifically for triple-negative breast cancers. Cooking methods and doneness preferences significantly modified risk: well-done red meat was associated with 62% increased risk and stewed red meat with 49% increased risk (particularly for hormone receptor-positive tumors), while pan-fried or breaded white meat showed 38% increased overall risk and 78% increased risk in premenopausal women. These findings suggest that breast cancer risk could be reduced not only by limiting meat consumption—especially processed meats—but also by modifying cooking practices to avoid well-done or high-temperature cooking methods that generate carcinogenic compounds like heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
2018
Mol Cell Endocrinol
A review examining parabens—one of the most widely used preservatives worldwide in foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals—found that these easily absorbed chemicals are classified as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that can disrupt hormonal homeostasis and cause multidirectional health implications affecting body fitness and function. The review summarizes current literature on paraben properties, occurrence, metabolism, and particularly their influence on the human endocrine system, emphasizing the importance of assessing their safety given their ubiquitous use and absorption. With parabens now recognized as EDCs capable of disrupting endocrine function, the authors highlight concerns about widespread population exposure through everyday consumer products and the need for precise assessment of their health impacts on human physiology.
2015
Carcinogenesis
This study explores the linkage between environmental chemical exposures and cellular resistance to cell death, a carcinogenic trait. The researchers in this study specifically investigate BPA, chlorothalonil, dibutyl phthalate, and more because of their disruptive effects that may be involved in these carcinogenic pathways. The researchers found that arsenic interferes with cellular signaling pathways and induces oxidative stress, leading to impaired apoptosis; dioxins bind to aryl hydrocarbon receptors (AHRs), which alters gene expression and disrupts normal cell death processes; BPA mimics the estrogen hormone, affecting hormonal balance and promoting cell survival pathways that inhibit cell death. By allowing cells to evade cell death, these environmental chemicals can promote the survival of cells with genetic mutations and therefore increase the risk of cancer development.
2014
Environ Health Perspect
This review of exposure biomarkers for chemicals potentially linked to breast cancer identified methods for 102 chemicals causing mammary tumors in rodents, finding biomarkers for nearly 75% of them, with human exposure biomarkers existing for 62 chemicals (45 measured in non-occupationally exposed populations) and the CDC tracking 23 of them. Among rodent mammary carcinogens with >50% population detection frequency were PAHs (98%), methyleugenol (98%), PFOA (>50%), chlordane (>50%), acrylamide (>50%), and benzene (>50%), indicating near-universal exposure to multiple mammary carcinogens, with several additional chemicals showing >50% detection of urinary metabolites including ethylene oxide, acrylonitrile, fenvalerate, and vinyl chloride (71-75%). The study found consistent carcinogenicity between humans and rodents for many chemicals, though limited data exists for direct effects in humans, and emphasizes the availability of biomonitoring tools and resources to advance breast cancer prevention efforts. The findings underscore that populations are ubiquitously exposed to multiple known mammary carcinogens simultaneously, highlighting the urgent need for biomonitoring programs to assess mixed exposures and inform prevention strategies targeting modifiable environmental risk factors for breast cancer.
2022
Toxicol Rep
This study focused on arsenic (As) and lead (Pb) being in baby foods due to their known health risks, such as developmental, reproductive, and carcinogenic effects. Arsenic exposure comes mainly from rice-based products and could cause significant health risks. Lead was found in some grains and root vegetables, indicating potential exposure to health effects. The study concluded that exposure to these metals from baby foods had been found to be at safe levels. However, an exception was made for rice products because of arsenic natural abundance in soil. Even though levels of these metals in baby foods have been found to be under safe levels, monitoring of infant food should be continued for these metals and others.
2019
Sci Total Environ
A comprehensive review examines enzyme-mediated bioremediation—particularly using laccases and other oxidoreductases, hydrolases, and transferases—as a compelling strategy for degrading highly toxic and carcinogenic restricted use pesticides (RUPs) that accumulate in non-target organisms including humans, aquatic life, and microbes through modern agricultural practices and environmental pollution. While native enzymes often face limitations in industrial applications due to high cost and susceptibility, immobilization on support materials enhances stability, reusability, activity, specificity, and enables continuous system operation for more effective removal of these refractory compounds. The review covers pesticide sources, environmental occurrence, ecosystem and human health impacts, and specifically highlights laccase’s exceptional efficiency, specificity, eco-sustainability, and broad substrate range for pesticide degradation and detoxification, while proposing that deploying robust laccase-assisted biocatalytic systems will improve understanding of pesticide persistence and facilitate development of sustainable processes to remediate contaminated environmental matrices and reduce human exposure to these hazardous emerging contaminants.
2015
Carcinogenesis
This paper examined how low doses of environmental chemical mixtures may contribute to cancer development by promoting tumor angiogenesis, and the formation of new blood vessels that supply nutrients to tumors. The authors identified chemicals that may interfere with these angiogenic pathways, such as those involving vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs). Chemicals disrupting these pathways can lead to uncontrolled blood vessel formation in tumors. However, there is a need for further research to understand the combined effects of low-dose chemical exposures on angiogenesis and cancer risk.