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2025
Rev Environ Health
This comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis examined the relationship between exposure to DDT (a banned pesticide that persists in the environment and human body) and breast cancer by analyzing studies published from 2000 to 2021. The analysis found positive associations between DDT exposure and breast cancer risk across multiple study types: in long-term prospective studies, women with higher p,p’-DDT levels had 41% increased odds of breast cancer, while retrospective studies showed 15% increased odds with p,p’-DDE exposure and 33% increased odds with high p,p’-DDT concentrations. The strongest association was observed with o,p’-DDT exposure, showing 2.24 times higher odds of breast cancer. These findings support a positive relationship between DDT exposure and breast cancer risk, reinforcing the importance of maintaining the worldwide ban on DDT use, as this pesticide remains in human bodies for decades and continues to spread geographically even where it’s no longer applied.
2024
Environ Res
This large Danish study of over 5,500 breast cancer cases found that daughters whose mothers worked in horticulture (greenhouse and nursery work) before conception or during pregnancy had significantly increased breast cancer risk—79% higher for estrogen receptor-positive tumors and 148% higher for estrogen receptor-negative tumors. The associations were particularly strong for maternal horticulture work compared to paternal work, suggesting that pesticide and chemical exposures during critical windows of fetal development may affect daughters’ breast cancer risk decades later. These findings are concerning because horticultural workers have high exposure to pesticides and other agricultural chemicals, and the study suggests that even preconceptional maternal exposure—before pregnancy begins—may influence a daughter’s future cancer risk, highlighting the potential for intergenerational effects of occupational chemical exposures.
2024
Environ Pollut
A French study of over 10,000 women found that combined exposure to a mixture of four hormone-disrupting air pollutants (benzo[a]pyrene, cadmium, dioxin, and PCB153) was associated with an approximately 10-11% increased risk of breast cancer. Using advanced statistical methods that account for simultaneous exposure to multiple pollutants rather than examining each separately, researchers found that benzo[a]pyrene, cadmium, and PCB153 showed the strongest individual contributions to increased breast cancer risk within the mixture. This research provides important evidence that the cumulative effect of multiple air pollutants acting together on hormone pathways may be a significant risk factor for breast cancer development.
2024
Environ Int
A comprehensive French study of over 10,000 women examined exposure to eight different air pollutants simultaneously and identified that women exposed to high levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), particulate matter, and PCB153 had a 38-61% increased risk of breast cancer compared to women with low pollution exposure. Using advanced statistical modeling that groups women by their combined pollution exposure patterns rather than examining pollutants individually, researchers found that specific combinations of high pollutant exposures were strongly associated with elevated breast cancer risk. This study provides important evidence that the combined “cocktail effect” of multiple air pollutants, particularly traffic-related pollution (NO₂) and industrial chemicals (PCB153), may significantly increase breast cancer risk beyond what individual pollutants cause alone.
2023
Asian Pac J Cancer Prev
A study of 360 participants found that agricultural workers exposed to pesticides who carry genetic variations that impair their body’s ability to detoxify chemicals (null mutations in GSTT1 and GSTM1 genes) had substantially increased cancer risk, with 4-7 times higher odds of developing lymphoma or breast cancer compared to those with normal detoxification genes. The study also found elevated markers of oxidative stress (cellular damage) in farm workers with these genetic variants who developed leukemia, suggesting that pesticide exposure combined with impaired detoxification capacity triggers cancer development. These findings indicate that certain genetic profiles make agricultural workers particularly vulnerable to pesticide-related cancers, highlighting the importance of protective measures for farm workers and potential genetic screening to identify high-risk individuals.
2023
J Endocrinol Invest
A comprehensive literature review examining environmental endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and hormone-related cancers concludes that several EDCs can be definitively classified as carcinogenic, including dioxin and cadmium for breast and thyroid cancer, arsenic and dioxin for prostate cancer, and organochlorines for testicular cancer. The review highlights that fetuses and newborns are most vulnerable to endocrine disruption, with adverse effects potentially manifesting at different ages throughout life, making it difficult to assess the full health impact of EDC exposure. The authors emphasize that EDCs represent a major environmental health issue requiring effective prevention policies, increased public awareness, and protective measures—particularly for pregnant women—along with standardized testing criteria to evaluate the carcinogenic potential of new chemicals before they enter widespread use.
2023
Environ Sci Poll Res
This meta-analysis pooled data from 17 epidemiological studies to examine whether exposure to the dioxin compound 2,3,7,8-TCDD or to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is associated with breast cancer risk. The authors found evidence of a modest but statistically significant increased breast cancer risk associated with TCDD levels in the body,
2022
Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr
A systematic review of 131 epidemiological studies examining endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and breast cancer risk found evidence that exposure to various EDCs—including pesticides (DDT/DDE, atrazine, dioxin), synthetic chemicals (BPA, phthalates, PFAS, PCBs, PBDEs), and other compounds found in everyday products—may elevate breast cancer risk, particularly when exposure occurs during early life. The review identified food as a major route of EDC exposure and emphasized that because most EDCs persist in the environment and accumulate in the body over time, long-term multi-generational health impacts need to be assessed. The authors call for improved exposure assessments of EDCs in food and food packaging, along with careful evaluation of their links to breast cancer development to inform policy-making and regulations aimed at protecting public health.
2022
Environ Res
A study of 6,247 greenspace workers (landscapers, gardeners, groundskeepers) from the French AGRICAN cohort found significantly elevated cancer risks compared to farmers and non-agricultural workers. Male greenspace workers showed 15% higher overall cancer incidence, with particularly elevated risks for prostate cancer (21% increase), thyroid cancer (184% increase), testicular cancer (298% increase), and skin melanoma (115% increase), while female greenspace workers had a 71% increased risk of breast cancer. The study also found that greenspace workers reported more allergic diseases and, among males, more depression compared to other occupational groups. These findings highlight that greenspace workers face distinct occupational health risks, likely related to pesticide exposure and other workplace hazards, and should be studied separately from agricultural workers rather than being grouped together in research.
2021
Int J Epidemiol
This French study of over 13,000 postmenopausal women found that those with low dietary exposure to synthetic pesticides (primarily from eating organic foods) had a 43% lower breast cancer risk, while overweight and obese women with high exposure to certain pesticides (including chlorpyrifos and malathion) had over four times the breast cancer risk. The researchers estimated pesticide exposure by tracking whether participants ate conventional or organic versions of various foods and using a database of pesticide residues found on different crops. These findings suggest that dietary pesticide exposure from conventional foods may increase breast cancer risk, particularly in women who are overweight or obese, though more research is needed to confirm these results and understand the underlying mechanisms.
2021
Environ Pollut
A pilot study of 250 predominantly postmenopausal women in Hawaii found that higher levels of AMPA (the primary breakdown product of the herbicide Glyphosate) in urine were associated with significantly increased breast cancer risk, with women in the highest exposure group having 4.5 times the risk compared to those with the lowest exposure. AMPA was detected in the urine of 90% of breast cancer cases and 84% of healthy controls, with cases showing 38% higher average AMPA levels. This is the first study to prospectively examine the link between AMPA exposure and breast cancer, and while the findings suggest a concerning association, the authors emphasize that larger studies are needed to confirm these preliminary results and explore potential differences across racial and ethnic groups.
2020
Environ Toxicol Pharmacol
This analysis of US health data from 2003-2012 found that women with higher long-term exposure to organophosphorus insecticides (common pesticides measured through urine samples) faced significantly elevated health risks, including three times higher risk of cardiovascular disease and 2.7 times higher overall cancer risk among women aged 60-85. Women with higher pesticide exposure also showed increased risks of asthma in younger age groups and chronic bronchitis in older age, with breast cancer risk elevated among female smokers and prostate cancer risk elevated among male smokers. These findings suggest that chronic exposure to these widely-used agricultural pesticides may pose greater health threats to women than men, particularly for cardiovascular disease and cancer.
2020
Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol
This case-control study of serum-levels of persistent organic pollutants among Greenlandic Inuit included 74 breast cancer cases and 80 matched controls. Researchers measured blood methylation of repetitive elements (LINE-1) and genes such as ATM and ESR2, alongside serum persistent organic pollutant (POP) levels. They found that women in the second tertile of ATM methylation had OR ≈ 2.33 (95% CI: 1.04–5.23) and those in the third tertile of ESR2 methylation had OR = 2.22 (95% CI: 0.97–5.05); women in the highest tertile of LINE-1 methylation had OR = 0.42 (95% CI: 0.18–0.98). These results suggest that altered DNA methylation associated with environmental pollutant burdens may play a role in breast cancer etiology in this population.
2020
Environ Res
A 24-year study of over 112,000 U.S. nurses found that women living within 10 kilometers (about 6 miles) of municipal solid waste incinerators had a 15% increased breast cancer risk compared to those not living near these facilities, with risk rising to 25% for women within 5 kilometers (3 miles). The association strengthened with longer duration of residence near incinerators and higher dioxin emission levels, and was consistent across hormone receptor subtypes and menopausal status. These findings provide evidence that residential exposure to dioxins—toxic chemicals released from waste incineration that persist in the environment and accumulate in the food chain—may increase breast cancer risk, highlighting the need for stricter emissions controls on incinerators and consideration of proximity to such facilities in community planning and cancer prevention strategies.
2019
Int J Env Res Pub Health
This Brazilian case-control study of 351 women in an intensive agricultural region found that women living near cropland where pesticides are used had more than twice the risk of developing breast cancer compared to those who didn’t live near such areas. The study also found that women over 50 who experienced early menarche (first menstrual period at 9-12 years) had approximately double the breast cancer risk. These findings suggest that residential proximity to pesticide-treated agricultural land may be an important environmental risk factor for breast cancer, adding to concerns about pesticide exposure beyond just occupational settings or dietary intake.
2019
J Natl Cancer Inst
This study of over 700 women found that DDT exposure was associated with increased breast cancer risk through age 54, but the timing of first exposure mattered critically: women first exposed to DDT after infancy had nearly triple the risk of early postmenopausal breast cancer (ages 50-54), while women first exposed during infancy through puberty had nearly four times the risk of premenopausal breast cancer (before age 50). These findings suggest there are specific windows of vulnerability when DDT exposure has the strongest impact on future breast cancer risk, with effects that can persist for decades. The results support the idea that DDT acts as an endocrine disruptor affecting breast tissue throughout a woman’s life—from before birth through menopause—even though DDT was banned in the U.S. in 1972, highlighting the long-term health consequences of early-life chemical exposures.
2019
Environ Int
This 20-year study of 748 women diagnosed with breast cancer in North Carolina found that those with the highest levels of DDE (a breakdown product of the banned pesticide DDT) in their blood had nearly twice the risk of death compared to those with the lowest levels. The association between DDE exposure and breast cancer death was particularly strong among Black women and women with estrogen receptor-negative tumors, with Black women showing more than double the mortality risk. Since DDT was banned in the U.S. in 1972 but DDE persists in the environment and body fat for decades, these findings suggest that legacy pesticide exposure may contribute to worse breast cancer outcomes and racial disparities in breast cancer survival.
2025
Food Chem Toxicol
An in vitro study examining the effects of Roundup® (a Glyphosate-based herbicide) on non-tumorigenic (MCF10A) and tumorigenic (MCF7 and MDA-MB-231) breast cell lines found that the herbicide affects cells through a non-estrogenic mechanism, impacting both hormone-dependent and -independent cells with dose- and time-dependent toxic and proliferative effects, and altered expression of key breast cancer genes (BRCA1 and BRCA2) even at low doses. Treatment with epigenetic modulators (epidrugs) was able to reverse some Roundup®-induced changes, suggesting the herbicide causes epigenetic modifications that may contribute to breast cancer development. These findings highlight that Glyphosate-based herbicides—widely used in agriculture and recognized as potential carcinogens and endocrine disruptors—may induce epigenetic changes linked to breast cancer risk through mechanisms distinct from estrogenic pathways, underscoring the importance of understanding these mechanisms to develop personalized prevention strategies for populations exposed to agricultural herbicides.
2025
J Hazard Mater
This study used advanced computer modeling to assess the combined reproductive health risks of phthalates (PAEs) and organophosphates (OPEs) found in atmospheric particles, focusing on their ability to disrupt hormone receptors. The researchers found that the mixed toxicity of these compounds was lower than expected from individual effects, suggesting they may interfere with each other’s toxic actions through antagonistic effects. Using network analysis and molecular modeling, they identified 590 potential targets and 50 core targets (including hormone receptors) affected by these pollutants, with DEHP, TPHP, and MEHP being key disruptors of hormone signaling pathways. The study also identified two previously overlooked targets (AKT1 and HSP90AA1) that may be important for reproductive toxicity, providing new insights into how these atmospheric pollutants may affect human reproductive health.
2024
Ecotoxicol Public Health
A case-control study of 758 women in southwestern Paraná, Brazil—a region with intensive pesticide use and 41% higher breast cancer rates than the national average—found that even women not working in fields but handling contaminated equipment and laundry tested positive for Glyphosate, atrazine, and 2,4-D. While the overall breast cancer risk association with pesticide exposure was non-significant after adjustment (OR = 1.30), exposed women had significantly higher risk of lymph node metastasis (OR = 2.19; 95% CI: 1.31-3.72), indicating more aggressive disease. These findings suggest pesticide exposure in agricultural communities may be associated with development of more aggressive breast cancer, highlighting the need for monitoring both occupational and household pesticide exposure in rural populations.
2024
Environ Res
Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs)—including bisphenol A, phthalates, parabens, pesticides, and heavy metals commonly found in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and packaging—are widespread environmental pollutants that interfere with the body’s hormone system. Research shows EDCs have harmful effects on women’s reproductive health, contributing to conditions such as endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome, uterine fibroids, premature ovarian failure, menstrual irregularities, and infertility. This review emphasizes the need for healthcare professionals to consider environmental exposures when evaluating patients, highlights potential mechanisms by which EDCs affect female reproduction, and discusses how nutritional interventions and stricter environmental regulations could help reduce EDC-related health risks. Understanding the link between EDCs and women’s health is crucial for developing protective strategies, informing treatment approaches, and shaping public policies to safeguard reproductive and overall well-being. The study seeks to advise that couples attempting to conceive should avoid endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) such as BPA, pesticides, and phthalates. Following this advice is found to be crucial during the prenatal and periconceptional periods, where fetal development and growth are critical in this window.
2024
Front Public Health
DDT, a highly persistent organochlorine pesticide comprising mainly p,p’-DDT (77%) and o,p’-DDT (15%), was widely used in agriculture and disease vector control with India being the primary consumer for malaria and leishmaniasis control, though global usage declined from ~5,388 metric tons annually (2001-2007) to ~3,772 metric tons (2008-2014) following the Stockholm Convention. As a xenoestrogen that bioaccumulates in fatty tissues and breast milk, DDT disrupts the endocrine system and enters the human circulatory system, causing reproductive toxicity, increased cancer risk (particularly threatening infants consuming contaminated breast milk), and carcinogenic effects, while also devastating wildlife populations through eggshell thinning in birds like pelicans and eagles. Prolonged DDT exposure causes cumulative toxicity that can alter morphogenesis, induce cancer, and cause reproductive system failure, yet its exceptional persistence and resistance to biodegradation means it continues to accumulate in the food chain and pose ongoing health threats despite reduced usage.
2024
Breast Cancer Res
A nested case-control study within the French E3N-Generations cohort examined 523 breast cancer cases and 523 matched controls to investigate whether thirteen metabolic health biomarkers mediate the relationship between exposure to three air pollutants (nitrogen dioxide, PCB153, and benzo[a]pyrene) and breast cancer risk. The study found that benzo[a]pyrene exposure was associated with a significant 2.32-fold increased breast cancer risk (highest vs. lowest quartile), PCB153 showed inconsistent positive associations, and nitrogen dioxide showed no association; among biomarkers, estradiol was associated with increased breast cancer risk (OR = 1.22 per SD). Four-way decomposition mediation analysis revealed suggestive evidence that albumin, HDL and LDL cholesterol, parathormone, and estradiol may partially mediate the associations between all three pollutants and breast cancer risk, though findings were limited by statistical power. These results provide preliminary mechanistic insights suggesting that air pollutants may influence breast cancer risk through alterations in metabolic biomarkers—particularly lipid metabolism and hormone regulation—though larger studies are needed to confirm these pathways and establish the clinical significance of these mediating effects in the relationship between environmental exposures and breast cancer development.
2024
Maturitas
A prospective study of 24,892 Spanish women (639 breast cancer cases) from the EPIC cohort examined associations between three dietary patterns (Western, Prudent, Mediterranean) and breast cancer risk over time. Women with moderate-to-high adherence to the Western dietary pattern showed a non-linear 37% increased breast cancer risk compared to those with lowest adherence (HR = 1.37; 95% CI: 1.07-1.77 for third quartile and HR = 1.37; 95% CI: 1.03-1.83 for fourth quartile), with particularly strong associations in postmenopausal women (HR = 1.42; 95% CI: 1.04-1.94 in highest quartile) and for ER+/PR+/HER2- tumors (HR = 1.71; 95% CI: 1.11-2.63 in highest quartile), while Prudent and Mediterranean patterns showed no clear associations. The findings suggest that Western dietary patterns characterized by high-fat dairy, red and processed meats, refined grains, sweets, caloric drinks, and convenience foods may increase breast cancer risk, especially for hormone receptor-positive tumors in postmenopausal women.
2023
Environ Sci Pollut Res
A hospital-based case-control study in Petrópolis, Brazil found that women exposed to pesticides for 10 or more years had elevated but non-significant breast cancer risk after adjusting for confounders (OR = 1.40; 95% CI: 0.85-2.49), while higher education and hormone replacement therapy showed significant positive associations, and having 2+ pregnancies was protective. The authors conclude that further research is needed to clarify pesticide exposure’s contribution to breast cancer development given conflicting findings in the literature.
2023
Reprod Toxicol
A review of epidemiologic literature examining environmental chemical exposures during pregnancy and three maternal health outcomes (preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, and breast cancer) found that pregnancy represents a unique critical period when biological changes can heighten women’s susceptibility to chemicals from air, food, water, and consumer products—including flame retardants, plasticizers, pesticides, and lead—though research has disproportionately focused on fetal outcomes rather than maternal health risks, which remain poorly characterized for most chemicals. While evidence shows that lead exposure increases risk of pregnancy-induced hypertensive disorders and pregnancy can amplify women’s vulnerability to environmental chemicals, variations in study design, exposure assessment methods, and inconsistent adjustment for confounders limited comparability across studies. The authors emphasize that future research must recognize pregnancy as a critical window for women’s lifelong health, calling for incorporation of biomarkers of exposure and effect, deliberate timing and methods of measurement, and consistent confounder adjustment to strengthen understanding of the pregnancy exposome and its impacts on maternal health outcomes beyond the immediate postpartum period.
2023
Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am
Multiple social and structural determinants of health undoubtedly contribute to the marked racial/ethnic-, gender-, and socioeconomic-based disparities in endocrine health; however, the contribution of environmental injustice is vastly underappreciated. Indeed, those groups disproportionately burdened by endocrine disorders are often exposed to higher levels of various EDCs, including PCBs, phthalates, bisphenols, OC pesticides, air pollutants, PFASs, toxic metals/metalloids, and BFRs. These chemicals threaten our reproductive and metabolic health, contributing to diabetes prevalences, obesity, and disorders related to hormonal regulation. This review increases awareness of these disparities and encouraged equitable healthcare for those who are disadvantaged.
2023
Foods
A review of regulations for endocrine-disrupting chemicals and persistent organic pollutants in infant formula found that while breast milk remains the healthiest option, infant formula must be strictly monitored to ensure it is pollutant-free, particularly given the vulnerability of newborns to chemical exposures. Current regulations and upper limits for contaminants in infant formula vary worldwide, though standardized policies exist to protect infants, and continuous monitoring is required to maintain safety standards. The authors emphasize that risk assessment studies are limited but urgently needed to better understand exposure variations and evaluate the health risks infants face from dietary exposure to pollutants during this critical developmental period.
2023
Frontiers
This meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the association between exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), including phthalates and other common environmental pollutants, and breast cancer risk. The study found that certain EDCs—such as p,p′-DDT, chlordane, HCH, and specific PCBs—were positively associated with increased breast cancer risk, while a few compounds like BBP and PFDoDA showed a negative association.
2023
Breast Cancer Res
A study of over 3,000 Ghanaian women found that using insect repellent room sprays was associated with a 42% increased breast cancer risk compared to women who didn’t use any mosquito control products, while widely-used mosquito coils and insecticide-treated bed nets showed no significant association with breast cancer. The lack of association with bed nets and coils is reassuring given their critical importance for preventing malaria in regions where mosquito-borne diseases are a major health threat, but the findings regarding repellent sprays—used by about half of participants—require further investigation to understand which chemical ingredients may be driving the increased risk. The study had limited ability to assess repellent skin creams due to low usage, and researchers could not determine whether more frequent spray use increased risk, highlighting the need for additional research on insecticide exposures and breast cancer in low- and middle-income countries where these products are essential for disease prevention.
2023
Environ Sci Technol
The following study discusses a strategic framework to improve how chemicals are managed in North America. The Essential-Use Approach is a policy that prioritizes restricting the use of chemicals based on necessity and safety. It proposes three guiding questions: Is the chemical essential to the product’s function? Is it the safest option? Is it necessary for health and safety? They also prioritize speed of assesments so that chemicals can be quickly phased out if evidence suggests danger to human health. This study is a call for change and aims to become a tool to simplify decision-making for regulating organizations, help businesses avoid liability related to harmful chemicals, and ultimately improve public health by ensuring only the safest substances are used in consumer products.
2022
Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr
This systematic review of 131 epidemiological studies evaluated the association between various endocrine-disrupting chemicals, including phthalates and hormonal exposures like contraceptive pills, and the risk of breast cancer. It found that several EDCs, particularly phthalates and oral contraceptive use, were consistently associated with increased breast cancer risk across multiple studies.
2022
Molecules
A review of endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) in drinking water examines this emerging class of environmental contaminants—ranging from naturally occurring to synthetic compounds—that exist as complex mixtures at trace levels but can cause adverse health effects even at low concentrations. The review covers the perceived and actual health risks of EDC exposure through water ingestion (a major human exposure route), regulatory efforts to limit contamination, and analytical methods including advanced sample preparation, instrumentation, and bioassays for multiclass EDC identification and quantitation. Given that human exposure to EDCs via drinking water poses significant health concerns even at trace concentrations, the ability to detect and evaluate EDC contamination with high sensitivity and accuracy is critically important for protecting public health and informing regulatory policy.
2022
Environ Int
A large prospective study within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort examined 318,607 women from nine European countries over a median 14.9 years of follow-up, identifying 13,241 incident invasive breast cancer cases, to assess whether dietary intake of 17 dioxins and 35 polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs)—persistent organic pollutants with endocrine-disrupting and carcinogenic properties—was associated with breast cancer risk. Dietary exposures to dioxins, dioxin-like PCBs (DL-PCBs), non-dioxin-like PCBs (NDL-PCBs), and combined dioxins + DL-PCBs showed no associations with breast cancer incidence (all HRs approximately 1.00-1.01 per 1 SD increase), with results remaining consistent when analyzed by quintile groups, by country, by estrogen receptor status, or after adjusting for contributing food groups and nutritional factors. These findings from one of the largest prospective studies on this topic do not support an association between dietary intake of dioxins and PCBs—the main exposure route for these chemicals in the general population—and breast cancer risk. Despite the established endocrine-disrupting properties of these pollutants and some previous suggestions of positive associations, this comprehensive European study provides reassuring evidence that typical dietary exposures to dioxins and PCBs are not linked to increased breast cancer incidence.
2021
PLOS One
A case-control study in Ethiopia examined 50 breast cancer patients and 50 controls to investigate whether exposure to organochlorine pesticides is a risk factor for breast cancer in a low- and middle-income country context. Ten organochlorine pesticides were detected in participants’ serum, with heptachlor found at highest concentrations; mean serum levels of p,p’-DDE, p,p’-DDT, heptachlor, gamma-chlordane, endosulfan, and dibutyl-chlorendate were significantly higher in breast cancer patients than controls, and p,p’-DDT and gamma-chlordane emerged as significant predictors of breast cancer, with each unit increase in p,p’-DDT concentration doubling breast cancer odds (AOR = 2.03; 95% CI: 1.04-3.97) and each unit increase in gamma-chlordane tripling the odds (AOR = 3.12; 95% CI: 1.19-8.20). These findings suggest that organochlorine pesticide exposure may be a significant breast cancer risk factor in Ethiopia, where environmental contamination from these persistent organic pollutants remains a concern despite global restrictions. The study highlights the public health importance of reducing exposure to these banned or restricted pesticides in developing countries and emphasizes the need for continuous biomonitoring of persistent organic pollutants to inform disease prevention strategies and mitigation measures, particularly as breast cancer incidence rises in low- and middle-income countries where environmental regulation may be less stringent.
2021
Oncol Rep
A review of organophosphorus pesticides (OPs)—among the most commonly used insecticides—and their association with hormone-mediated cancer found that OPs combined with estrogen induce transformation events in human breast epithelial cells, with in vitro studies showing these substances cause genomic instability through inactivation of tumor-suppressor genes and activation of oncogenes. Studies using immortalized non-tumorigenic human breast epithelial cell lines (MCF-10F) demonstrated that OPs like malathion and parathion, particularly in the presence of estrogen, affect cell cycle regulation, epidermal growth factor signaling pathways, drug metabolism, and genomic stability, leading to cellular transformation and signs of carcinogenesis. The findings suggest hormone-mediated carcinogenic effects of these widely used insecticides on breast cancer risk in women, with experimental models revealing the multistep process by which normal breast cells transform into malignant ones through combined exposure to environmental pesticides and estrogen, providing mechanistic insights into how occupational and environmental OP exposure may contribute to breast cancer development.
2021
Environ Res
Biodegradable polymers are emerging as a promising solution for removing endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) from wastewater. EDC’s, found in pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and personal care products pose serious health risks, impacting the endocrine system and disrupting reproductive health. Traditional water treatments often fail to fully remove EDCs. Biodegradable polymers, with strong adsorptive properties, offer a sustainable and effective method, helping to minimize EDC exposure and protect human and environmental health.
2020
Mol Cell Endocrinol
A review of EPA pesticide registration documents found that 28 pesticides cause mammary tumors in animals and five alter mammary gland development, yet the agency’s risk assessments often dismiss these findings or don’t evaluate their implications for breast cancer risk. Many of these pesticides work through hormone-disrupting pathways that could affect breast tissue, including common chemicals like malathion, atrazine, and triclopyr. The authors argue that current testing guidelines don’t adequately assess effects on the mammary gland and call for re-evaluation of several widely-used pesticides based on stronger standards informed by breast cancer biology.
2020
Int J Cancer
A prospective study of 42,012 women in the Sister Study followed participants for an average of 7.6 years and identified 1,536 invasive breast cancer cases to examine the association between meat consumption types and breast cancer risk. The study found that higher red meat consumption was associated with a 23% increased risk of invasive breast cancer (highest vs. lowest quartile), and when total meat consumption was held constant in a substitution model, replacing red meat with poultry reduced breast cancer risk by 28%. No associations were found between cooking practices, heterocyclic amines (carcinogens formed during high-temperature cooking), or heme iron from red meat and breast cancer risk, suggesting the red meat-breast cancer link may operate through other mechanisms. The findings suggest that women could potentially reduce their breast cancer risk by replacing red meat with poultry in their diets, though the biological mechanisms underlying this association require further investigation.
2019
Molecules
A study examined the effects of four common herbicides (MCPA, mesotrione, bifenox, and dichlobenil) on breast cancer cells and found that these pesticides, which can remain as residues in plant-based foods, showed harmful effects on cancer cells at physiological concentrations. The researchers also tested whether traumatic acid (TA), a beneficial natural compound found in food, could counteract the effects of these herbicides when cells were exposed to both together. Results showed that TA, in a concentration-dependent manner, was able to influence and potentially reduce some of the effects of the tested herbicides on certain breast cancer cell lines. This research highlights concerns about herbicide residues in food as potential contributors to cancer risk while also suggesting that naturally occurring food compounds like traumatic acid might help mitigate some pesticide effects, though more research is needed to understand real-world implications.
2019
J Occup Environ Med
This case control study was conducted among Hispanic women agricultural workers who are exposed to pesticides. Chemicals associated with BC risk included organophosphates, organochlorines, and a phthalimide, Captan. The study concluded that agricultural work may be associated with increased BC risk in female Hispanic farm workers.
2019
Am J Indust Med
A case-control study of 300 breast cancer cases and 300 age- and residence-matched controls in Morocco examined associations between occupation, industry, and breast cancer risk using detailed occupational histories (jobs held ≥6 months) coded by international standards (ISCO 08, Moroccan Analytical Classification, European Statistical Classification). Women doing only household work showed decreased breast cancer risk (OR=0.32; 95% CI: 0.18-0.55), while agricultural workers—particularly agricultural laborers—had significantly increased risk (OR=2.91; 95% CI: 1.51-5.60) with risk increasing by duration of employment (p-trend=0.01), findings corroborated by industry-level analyses. These results suggest that occupational exposures in agricultural work may substantially increase breast cancer risk among Moroccan women, warranting further investigation with advanced exposure assessment methods to identify specific chemical exposures (likely pesticides and other agricultural chemicals) driving this elevated risk and inform targeted prevention strategies and screening programs for this high-risk occupational group in populations where agriculture employs significant numbers of women.
2019
Int J Env Res Public Health
A French population-based case-control study (CECILE study) of 695 breast cancer cases and 1,055 controls measured plasma levels of organochlorine compounds (OCs)—p,p’-DDE and PCB153—at the time of diagnosis and used a physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model to estimate PCB153 exposure levels during adolescence (ages 11-20), when breast tissue may be particularly susceptible to hormonal disruption. The study found no clear association between measured OC levels at diagnosis and breast cancer risk overall, though there was a trend toward decreasing breast cancer odds ratios with increasing OC levels in women aged 50 and over; similarly, negative associations were observed between breast cancer and estimated adolescent PCB153 exposure levels. The PBPK modeling revealed that women born after 1960 had the highest estimated PCB153 exposures during adolescence (coinciding with peak environmental contamination), while older women had very low adolescent exposures, yet the unexpected negative associations between OC levels and breast cancer risk remained unexplained and may represent study artifacts. Despite these puzzling findings, the study demonstrates that PBPK models can be valuable tools in epidemiological research for back-estimating exposures during critical developmental windows, which could help address important questions about how early-life environmental exposures influence cancer risk decades later.
2019
J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol
This study from a longitudinal cohort of 133 women diagnosed with breast cancer before age 50 and 133 age-matched controls without breast cancer. DDT is stored in adipose tissue, and the authors found that serum DDE (the main metabolite of DDT) was inversely associated with BMI amont women who were cancer-free, but that this association did not hold among women diagnosed with breast cancer before age 50. The authors suggest that early exposure to breast cancer among women exposed to DDT may be due to an uncoupling of the relationship between BMI and serum DDT, and that this may reveal biomarkers of risk through further research.
2018
Environ Res
A systematic review of 158 studies examining environmental chemicals and breast cancer found the strongest evidence for increased risk from exposures during critical developmental periods (in utero, adolescence, pregnancy) to DDT, dioxins, PFOSA, air pollution, and occupational solvents, with risk estimates ranging from 1.4 to 5 times higher. A landmark 50-year study that captured DDT exposure during windows of breast development showed particularly elevated risks, while research on genetic variations found that women with certain DNA repair gene variants had higher breast cancer risk from PAH (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon) exposure. However, most studies failed to assess exposure timing during biologically relevant windows of susceptibility, and many current-use chemicals in consumer products remain inadequately studied, with major challenges including reconstructing decades-old exposures and measuring rapidly metabolized chemicals in complex real-world mixtures.
2018
Maturitas
A Spanish population-based case-control study of 1,006 breast cancer cases and 1,370 controls found that high total meat intake was associated with a 39% increased breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women, with processed/cured meat showing a 47% increased risk overall and a striking 152% increased risk specifically for triple-negative breast cancers. Cooking methods and doneness preferences significantly modified risk: well-done red meat was associated with 62% increased risk and stewed red meat with 49% increased risk (particularly for hormone receptor-positive tumors), while pan-fried or breaded white meat showed 38% increased overall risk and 78% increased risk in premenopausal women. These findings suggest that breast cancer risk could be reduced not only by limiting meat consumption—especially processed meats—but also by modifying cooking practices to avoid well-done or high-temperature cooking methods that generate carcinogenic compounds like heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
2018
Eur J Obstet Gynecol Repod Biol
A hospital-based case-control study of 134 breast cancer cases and 267 controls in Tehran, Iran used a 168-item food frequency questionnaire and factor analysis to identify two major dietary patterns and assess their association with breast cancer risk. The “healthy” pattern (high in fruits, vegetables, seeds, legumes, fish, whole grains, and liquid/olive oils, with low salt) showed no significant association with breast cancer (OR: 0.83), while the “unhealthy” pattern (high in sweets, soft drinks, mayonnaise, solid oils, processed meat, fried/boiled potatoes, and salt) was associated with significantly increased breast cancer risk in the highest versus lowest quartile (OR: 2.21; 95% CI: 1.04-4.69). When stratified by menopausal status, the unhealthy dietary pattern showed a particularly strong association with breast cancer risk among postmenopausal women (OR: 3.56; 95% CI: 1.16-10.95), but not premenopausal women. These findings suggest that overall dietary patterns—rather than individual nutrients or foods—may be important determinants of breast cancer risk, with an unhealthy Western-style diet pattern characterized by processed foods, added sugars, unhealthy fats, and high salt intake potentially more than doubling breast cancer risk, especially in postmenopausal Iranian women.
2015
Carcinogenesis
This study explores the linkage between environmental chemical exposures and cellular resistance to cell death, a carcinogenic trait. The researchers in this study specifically investigate BPA, chlorothalonil, dibutyl phthalate, and more because of their disruptive effects that may be involved in these carcinogenic pathways. The researchers found that arsenic interferes with cellular signaling pathways and induces oxidative stress, leading to impaired apoptosis; dioxins bind to aryl hydrocarbon receptors (AHRs), which alters gene expression and disrupts normal cell death processes; BPA mimics the estrogen hormone, affecting hormonal balance and promoting cell survival pathways that inhibit cell death. By allowing cells to evade cell death, these environmental chemicals can promote the survival of cells with genetic mutations and therefore increase the risk of cancer development.
2014
Aging Dis
The following review article described how exposure to EDCs during early development can lead to adverse health outcomes later in life through epigenetic mechanisms based on existing studies. The article emphasizes that exposure to EDCs during critical developmental periods such as in utero and early childhood, can have lasting effects on health since, during these periods, the body’s systems are particularly vulnerable to exposures. Additionally, the article finds a link between early-life exposure to EDCs and increased risk of various health issues later on in life, including metabolic disorders and cancers. The suspected mechanism by which these chemicals do this is thought to be mediated by epigenetic changes, which are changes to gene expression without altering the DNA. Therefore, the article emphasizes understanding how exposure during such sensitive periods in development can pose such drastic problems later on in life.
2014
Environ Health Perspect
This review of exposure biomarkers for chemicals potentially linked to breast cancer identified methods for 102 chemicals causing mammary tumors in rodents, finding biomarkers for nearly 75% of them, with human exposure biomarkers existing for 62 chemicals (45 measured in non-occupationally exposed populations) and the CDC tracking 23 of them. Among rodent mammary carcinogens with >50% population detection frequency were PAHs (98%), methyleugenol (98%), PFOA (>50%), chlordane (>50%), acrylamide (>50%), and benzene (>50%), indicating near-universal exposure to multiple mammary carcinogens, with several additional chemicals showing >50% detection of urinary metabolites including ethylene oxide, acrylonitrile, fenvalerate, and vinyl chloride (71-75%). The study found consistent carcinogenicity between humans and rodents for many chemicals, though limited data exists for direct effects in humans, and emphasizes the availability of biomonitoring tools and resources to advance breast cancer prevention efforts. The findings underscore that populations are ubiquitously exposed to multiple known mammary carcinogens simultaneously, highlighting the urgent need for biomonitoring programs to assess mixed exposures and inform prevention strategies targeting modifiable environmental risk factors for breast cancer.