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2025
Environ Int
A large French study following nearly 68,000 women for over 17 years found that dietary intake of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)—cancer-causing chemicals formed when meat, fish, and other foods are grilled, smoked, or cooked at high temperatures—was associated with increased breast cancer risk, particularly for hormone receptor-negative (ER-PR-) breast cancer which had a 34% higher risk at the highest exposure levels. The relationship showed a non-linear pattern, with elevated risk observed at moderate PAH intake levels, and similar trends for benzo[a]pyrene, a marker compound for total PAH exposure. These findings suggest that cooking methods that produce PAHs—such as grilling, barbecuing, and smoking foods—may increase breast cancer risk, supporting recommendations to limit charred or heavily grilled foods and use gentler cooking methods like baking, steaming, or stewing, particularly for women at higher risk.
2025
Environ Health
This case-control study of 942 Brazilian women (471 with breast cancer and 471 matched controls) found that higher blood levels of certain per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)—persistent environmental chemicals found in products like non-stick cookware and food packaging—were significantly associated with increased breast cancer risk. Specifically, elevated concentrations of n-perfluoroheptane sulfonate (n-PFHpS) doubled the breast cancer risk, and this association was particularly strong for hormone receptor-positive breast cancers and varied by ethnicity. The study emphasizes the importance of analyzing specific PFAS chemical variants (isomers) rather than treating all PFAS as identical, as different forms showed different associations with breast cancer risk across ethnic groups. These findings add to growing evidence that PFAS exposure may be a modifiable environmental risk factor for breast cancer, though the researchers note that previous studies have shown mixed results.
2023
Int J Cancer
This study of over 1,200 postmenopausal women found that higher blood levels of PFOS (a common “forever chemical” found in items like stain-resistant fabrics and food packaging) were associated with 59-134% increased risk of hormone receptor-positive breast cancers, while PFOA (another widespread PFAS chemical) showed modest associations with hormone receptor-negative tumors. PFAS are called “forever chemicals” because they persist indefinitely in the environment and human body, and these findings suggest they may contribute to breast cancer through hormone disruption. These results add to growing concerns about PFAS exposure from contaminated water, food packaging, and consumer products, though the different associations for PFOS and PFOA by tumor subtype require further investigation to fully understand how these chemicals affect breast cancer development.
2022
Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr
A systematic review of 131 epidemiological studies examining endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and breast cancer risk found evidence that exposure to various EDCs—including pesticides (DDT/DDE, atrazine, dioxin), synthetic chemicals (BPA, phthalates, PFAS, PCBs, PBDEs), and other compounds found in everyday products—may elevate breast cancer risk, particularly when exposure occurs during early life. The review identified food as a major route of EDC exposure and emphasized that because most EDCs persist in the environment and accumulate in the body over time, long-term multi-generational health impacts need to be assessed. The authors call for improved exposure assessments of EDCs in food and food packaging, along with careful evaluation of their links to breast cancer development to inform policy-making and regulations aimed at protecting public health.
2022
Cancer Epiemiol
The first Indian case-control study examining phthalates (chemicals widely used in plastics, cosmetics, and food packaging) and breast cancer found that women with higher urinary levels of di-butyl phthalate (DBP) had 1.5 times increased breast cancer risk, while those with higher DEHP levels had nearly 3 times increased risk. Analysis of breast tumor tissue revealed mutations in several genes known to respond to phthalate exposure, affecting pathways involved in hormones, metabolism, and cancer development. These findings suggest that exposure to certain phthalates may increase breast cancer risk through genetic changes, though larger studies are needed to confirm these results and understand how early-life exposures might contribute to cancer development later in life.
2022
Am J Clin Nutr
A large French study following over 80,000 women for nearly 9 years found that higher dietary acrylamide intake—a probable carcinogen formed when starchy foods like coffee, French fries, chips, and baked goods are cooked at high temperatures—was associated with a 40% increased risk of premenopausal breast cancer. The association showed a nonlinear pattern, with elevated risk at both moderate and high exposure levels, and was specifically linked to estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer, while no association was found for postmenopausal breast cancer. These findings support the need for continued efforts to reduce acrylamide formation in foods through improved cooking and processing methods, as dietary acrylamide exposure—averaging about 30 micrograms per day in this population—may be a modifiable risk factor for breast cancer, particularly in younger women.
2022
Environ Int
A large French study of nearly 68,000 women followed for over 21 years found that dietary exposure to PBDEs (flame retardant chemicals) was associated with increased breast cancer risk, but importantly, this association was modified by vegetable oil consumption. Women who consumed higher amounts of vegetable oil (≥4.6 g/day) and had the highest PBDE intake showed a 23% increased breast cancer risk, while those with low vegetable oil consumption showed no increased risk regardless of PBDE exposure. These findings suggest that the interaction between diet and chemical contaminants is important to consider when developing public health recommendations, as certain dietary patterns may amplify or mitigate the health risks associated with environmental chemical exposures.
2021
Int J Epidemiol
This French study of over 13,000 postmenopausal women found that those with low dietary exposure to synthetic pesticides (primarily from eating organic foods) had a 43% lower breast cancer risk, while overweight and obese women with high exposure to certain pesticides (including chlorpyrifos and malathion) had over four times the breast cancer risk. The researchers estimated pesticide exposure by tracking whether participants ate conventional or organic versions of various foods and using a database of pesticide residues found on different crops. These findings suggest that dietary pesticide exposure from conventional foods may increase breast cancer risk, particularly in women who are overweight or obese, though more research is needed to confirm these results and understand the underlying mechanisms.
2021
Int J Clin Pract
A case-control study of 250 breast cancer patients and 250 controls found that women consuming diets that trigger higher insulin responses after meals—measured by dietary insulin index (DII) and dietary insulin load (DIL)—had 46-87% increased odds of breast cancer compared to those with lower scores. These high insulin-stimulating diets were more common among overweight women and those with family histories of cancer, suggesting that dietary patterns affecting blood insulin levels may be a modifiable risk factor for breast cancer. The findings support reducing consumption of foods that spike insulin levels—typically refined carbohydrates and high-glycemic foods—as a potential dietary strategy for breast cancer prevention, particularly for women at higher risk.
2021
Epidemiol
A study of 1,407 North Carolina women examined the relationship between blood levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)—banned industrial chemicals that persist in the environment—and breast cancer risk. The researchers found that exposure to mixtures of PCBs was associated with increased breast cancer risk, with stronger associations observed among Black women (50% increased risk) compared to White women (10% increased risk) at higher exposure levels. Several individual PCB compounds showed elevated breast cancer risk when comparing highest to lowest exposure groups, with risk increases ranging from 20-40%. These findings support the hypothesis that PCB exposure may increase breast cancer risk, though additional studies in other populations are needed to confirm the results.
2020
Environ Res
A 24-year study of over 112,000 U.S. nurses found that women living within 10 kilometers (about 6 miles) of municipal solid waste incinerators had a 15% increased breast cancer risk compared to those not living near these facilities, with risk rising to 25% for women within 5 kilometers (3 miles). The association strengthened with longer duration of residence near incinerators and higher dioxin emission levels, and was consistent across hormone receptor subtypes and menopausal status. These findings provide evidence that residential exposure to dioxins—toxic chemicals released from waste incineration that persist in the environment and accumulate in the food chain—may increase breast cancer risk, highlighting the need for stricter emissions controls on incinerators and consideration of proximity to such facilities in community planning and cancer prevention strategies.
2020
Environ Int
This Taiwanese study of 239 women found that higher plasma levels of PFOS (a “forever chemical”) were associated with 134% increased breast cancer risk in women aged 50 and younger, with each natural log unit increase in exposure more than doubling the odds of developing the disease. Both PFOS and PFHxS (another PFAS chemical) showed positive associations specifically with estrogen receptor-positive breast tumors in younger women, suggesting these endocrine-disrupting chemicals may particularly affect hormone-sensitive breast cancers during reproductive years. These findings are concerning because PFAS are ubiquitous environmental contaminants found in water, food packaging, and consumer products, and the study adds to growing evidence that these persistent chemicals may contribute to rising breast cancer rates among younger women. The results highlight the potential health consequences of widespread PFAS contamination, particularly for women of reproductive age who may face elevated risk of hormone-driven breast cancers.
2020
Int J Cancer
his French study of 388 women found that higher blood levels of PFOS (a “forever chemical”) were associated with 122-133% increased breast cancer risk for estrogen receptor-positive tumors and 147-176% increased risk for progesterone receptor-positive tumors, with a clear dose-response relationship showing increasing risk at higher exposure levels. Interestingly, the study found different patterns for hormone receptor-negative tumors, where only low-to-moderate levels of PFOS and PFOA were associated with dramatically increased risk (up to 1,440% for estrogen receptor-negative tumors at moderate PFOS levels). These findings suggest that PFAS chemicals—which are widespread in human blood worldwide due to contamination from products like stain-resistant fabrics, non-stick cookware, and food packaging—may contribute to breast cancer through different mechanisms depending on tumor type, highlighting the complexity of how these persistent environmental chemicals affect breast cancer risk.
2020
Int J Epidemiol
This Russian study of 468 breast cancer cases found that women exposed to prolonged low-level radiation from the Chernobyl nuclear accident had approximately three times higher breast cancer risk in the highest exposure groups compared to those with the lowest exposure, even though radiation doses were relatively low (averaging just 1.3 centigray). The study tracked women for about 25 years after the 1986 Chernobyl accident and estimated their radiation exposure based on where they lived and what they ate during that time. The findings suggest that even prolonged exposure to low levels of radiation—not just high-dose exposures—can increase breast cancer risk, particularly among women who were younger at the time of exposure.
2019
Cancer Epidemiol
A 22-year Italian study following nearly 9,000 women found that those with the highest dietary cadmium intake (a toxic metal found in foods like grains, vegetables, and shellfish) had a 54% increased breast cancer risk compared to those with the lowest intake, with even stronger associations in premenopausal women (73% increased risk). Cadmium—classified as a proven human carcinogen—enters the food supply primarily through contaminated soil and water, with diet being the main exposure source for non-smokers at an average intake of about 8 micrograms per day in this population. The increased risk was consistent across all breast cancer subtypes regardless of hormone receptor status, supporting cadmium as a dietary risk factor for breast cancer and highlighting the need for strategies to reduce cadmium levels in the food supply through soil remediation and crop selection.
2025
Global Health Res Pol
A meta-analysis of 17 observational studies found that the highest consumption of fast foods and ultra-processed foods (FFs/UPFs) was associated with a 25% increased breast cancer risk compared to the lowest consumption levels. The association was particularly strong in case-control studies and in Latin American populations, and remained significant regardless of sample size or BMI adjustment, though no association was found in cohort studies or when stratified by menopausal status. These findings suggest that diets high in ultra-processed foods—which often contain carcinogenic compounds formed during processing, additives, packaging contaminants, and unhealthy nutrient profiles—may contribute to breast cancer development, highlighting the urgent need for public health strategies and regulatory policies targeting food processing standards, marketing restrictions, improved labeling, and reduced accessibility of ultra-processed foods to reduce cancer risk, particularly as global consumption of these products continues to rise.
2025
Nutr J
A prospective cohort study of 13,567 Chinese women followed for nearly 15 years found that consuming one or more servings of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) per week was associated with a 58% increased breast cancer risk compared to consuming less than one serving weekly. The association was partly mediated by body mass index (4.2%) and uric acid (18.8%), with genetic analyses identifying additional metabolic mediators including cholesterol and fatty acid ratios accounting for small portions of the effect. Interestingly, higher soy milk consumption (3-6 portions weekly) was associated with a 69% reduced breast cancer risk, while dairy milk showed a non-significant trend toward increased risk, and no associations were found for juice, coffee, tea, or alcohol, suggesting that reducing SSB consumption and addressing the associated metabolic disruptions could be effective breast cancer prevention strategies.
2025
Food Chem Toxicol
An in vitro study examining the effects of Roundup® (a Glyphosate-based herbicide) on non-tumorigenic (MCF10A) and tumorigenic (MCF7 and MDA-MB-231) breast cell lines found that the herbicide affects cells through a non-estrogenic mechanism, impacting both hormone-dependent and -independent cells with dose- and time-dependent toxic and proliferative effects, and altered expression of key breast cancer genes (BRCA1 and BRCA2) even at low doses. Treatment with epigenetic modulators (epidrugs) was able to reverse some Roundup®-induced changes, suggesting the herbicide causes epigenetic modifications that may contribute to breast cancer development. These findings highlight that Glyphosate-based herbicides—widely used in agriculture and recognized as potential carcinogens and endocrine disruptors—may induce epigenetic changes linked to breast cancer risk through mechanisms distinct from estrogenic pathways, underscoring the importance of understanding these mechanisms to develop personalized prevention strategies for populations exposed to agricultural herbicides.
2024
Environ Int
A study of 1,031 pregnant women from the socioeconomically diverse CANDLE cohort in the urban South found that ultra-processed foods constituted 38.6% of participants’ diets on average, with each 10% higher dietary proportion of ultra-processed foods associated with 13.1% higher urinary concentrations of DEHP phthalate metabolites, while specific foods like hamburgers, French fries, soda, and cake showed 6-10.5% higher DEHP per standard deviation increase in consumption. Causal mediation analyses revealed that lower income and education levels were associated with 1.9% and 1.4% higher DEHP exposure respectively, mediated through increased ultra-processed food consumption, indicating that ultra-processed foods contribute to socioeconomic disparities in phthalate exposure during pregnancy. The findings demonstrate that consuming ultra-processed foods increases exposure to endocrine-disrupting phthalates from food contact materials, and because socioeconomic barriers can prevent dietary modifications, policies to reduce phthalates in food packaging and processing are needed rather than relying solely on individual dietary recommendations to reduce prenatal phthalate exposures.
2024
BMC Cancer
A case-control study of 133 breast cancer cases and 266 controls in Tehran, Iran used a food frequency questionnaire and the NOVA classification system to examine the association between processed foods (PFs) and ultra-processed foods (UPFs) consumption and breast cancer risk. In the initial model, women in the highest tertile of UPF consumption had nearly double the odds of breast cancer compared to the lowest tertile (OR = 1.93; 95% CI: 1.08-3.45), though this association was no longer significant after additional adjustments in a second model. However, when stratified by menopausal status, premenopausal women in the highest tertile of UPF consumption had more than 3.5 times higher odds of breast cancer (OR = 3.66; 95% CI: 1.33-10.08) in the fully adjusted model. These findings suggest that high consumption of ultra-processed foods may be particularly associated with increased breast cancer risk among premenopausal women, adding to the limited and sometimes contradictory evidence on the relationship between ultra-processed food intake and breast cancer.
2024
J Hazard Mater
A study analyzing 162 non-alcoholic beverages found that 63 endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) were present in 144 products, with concentrations highest in metal-canned beverages and significantly lower or absent in glass, plastic, and carton packaging. Bisphenol A (BPA) levels were notably elevated in canned drinks compared to identical products from the same manufacturers packaged in glass or plastic, and researchers identified two previously unknown BPA structural isomers in beverages for the first time. The calculated daily BPA exposure from average beverage consumption (364 mL/day) exceeded the European Food Safety Authority’s revised safety guideline by up to 2,000-fold, suggesting that regular consumption of canned non-alcoholic beverages—particularly by young children—poses a potential health hazard due to EDC exposure from packaging materials.
2024
Front Public Health
DDT, a highly persistent organochlorine pesticide comprising mainly p,p’-DDT (77%) and o,p’-DDT (15%), was widely used in agriculture and disease vector control with India being the primary consumer for malaria and leishmaniasis control, though global usage declined from ~5,388 metric tons annually (2001-2007) to ~3,772 metric tons (2008-2014) following the Stockholm Convention. As a xenoestrogen that bioaccumulates in fatty tissues and breast milk, DDT disrupts the endocrine system and enters the human circulatory system, causing reproductive toxicity, increased cancer risk (particularly threatening infants consuming contaminated breast milk), and carcinogenic effects, while also devastating wildlife populations through eggshell thinning in birds like pelicans and eagles. Prolonged DDT exposure causes cumulative toxicity that can alter morphogenesis, induce cancer, and cause reproductive system failure, yet its exceptional persistence and resistance to biodegradation means it continues to accumulate in the food chain and pose ongoing health threats despite reduced usage.
2024
Maturitas
A prospective study of 24,892 Spanish women (639 breast cancer cases) from the EPIC cohort examined associations between three dietary patterns (Western, Prudent, Mediterranean) and breast cancer risk over time. Women with moderate-to-high adherence to the Western dietary pattern showed a non-linear 37% increased breast cancer risk compared to those with lowest adherence (HR = 1.37; 95% CI: 1.07-1.77 for third quartile and HR = 1.37; 95% CI: 1.03-1.83 for fourth quartile), with particularly strong associations in postmenopausal women (HR = 1.42; 95% CI: 1.04-1.94 in highest quartile) and for ER+/PR+/HER2- tumors (HR = 1.71; 95% CI: 1.11-2.63 in highest quartile), while Prudent and Mediterranean patterns showed no clear associations. The findings suggest that Western dietary patterns characterized by high-fat dairy, red and processed meats, refined grains, sweets, caloric drinks, and convenience foods may increase breast cancer risk, especially for hormone receptor-positive tumors in postmenopausal women.
2023
Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf
A systematic review of phthalate contamination in food identified 19 phthalates across multiple food categories, with 57 measurements exceeding legal limits and DEHP showing the highest incidence; risk assessment revealed high probability of exceeding tolerable daily intake for DEHP and DBP in fish, oils/fats, cereals, and dairy for both children and adults, with fats/oils being the most critical category. Migration from food contact materials is positively correlated with temperature, contact time, fat content, and acidity, with contamination occurring throughout the production chain. The widespread contamination exceeding safe exposure limits—particularly for vulnerable populations including children—highlights the urgent need for stricter regulation of phthalates in food packaging and production materials.
2023
Environ Sci Technol
This review investigates the migration of bisphenols and alternative color developers from thermal labels on cling-wrapped fresh food, identifying them as significant dietary sources of these compounds. While no BPA was found in packaging, high concentrations of bisphenol S (BPS) and other alternatives were detected, particularly in thermal labels. Migration studies revealed that BPS and related compounds leach into food, especially fish, raising potential health concerns. These findings highlight the need for further risk assessments regarding these alternative chemicals in food packaging due to past findings about BPA being an endocrine disruptor. This will help mitigate exposure risks and ensure consumer safety.
2023
Foods
A review of regulations for endocrine-disrupting chemicals and persistent organic pollutants in infant formula found that while breast milk remains the healthiest option, infant formula must be strictly monitored to ensure it is pollutant-free, particularly given the vulnerability of newborns to chemical exposures. Current regulations and upper limits for contaminants in infant formula vary worldwide, though standardized policies exist to protect infants, and continuous monitoring is required to maintain safety standards. The authors emphasize that risk assessment studies are limited but urgently needed to better understand exposure variations and evaluate the health risks infants face from dietary exposure to pollutants during this critical developmental period.
2023
Endocrinology
Methylparaben (MP) and propylparaben (PP) are preservatives commonly found in food, and cosmetics which activate estrogen receptors (ER) in the body. Research shows that these parabens can promote mammary tumor growth and metastasis. This study tested female mice with exposure to MP and PP within levels deemed safe by the FDA. Even within FDA approved levels, there was significant increase in mammary tumor volume. Cellular analysis revealed that these parabens affected the expression of genes, some linked to breast cancer. This research highlights potential risks of parabens in promoting breast cancer.
2023
Reprod Toxicol
A review of epidemiologic literature examining environmental chemical exposures during pregnancy and three maternal health outcomes (preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, and breast cancer) found that pregnancy represents a unique critical period when biological changes can heighten women’s susceptibility to chemicals from air, food, water, and consumer products—including flame retardants, plasticizers, pesticides, and lead—though research has disproportionately focused on fetal outcomes rather than maternal health risks, which remain poorly characterized for most chemicals. While evidence shows that lead exposure increases risk of pregnancy-induced hypertensive disorders and pregnancy can amplify women’s vulnerability to environmental chemicals, variations in study design, exposure assessment methods, and inconsistent adjustment for confounders limited comparability across studies. The authors emphasize that future research must recognize pregnancy as a critical window for women’s lifelong health, calling for incorporation of biomarkers of exposure and effect, deliberate timing and methods of measurement, and consistent confounder adjustment to strengthen understanding of the pregnancy exposome and its impacts on maternal health outcomes beyond the immediate postpartum period.
2023
Eur J Nutr
A large prospective cohort study of 67,879 French women followed for 21 years found that higher dietary inflammatory potential was associated with a 4% increased breast cancer risk per standard deviation increase in DII score, with women in the highest versus lowest quintile showing a 13% increased risk in a linear dose-response relationship. The association was slightly stronger among non-smokers (6% increased risk per standard deviation) and low alcohol consumers (5% increased risk per standard deviation), suggesting that inflammatory diet effects may be most pronounced in women without other pro-inflammatory exposures. These findings from one of the largest and longest prospective studies provide strong evidence that promoting anti-inflammatory dietary patterns—rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts, and fish while limiting processed foods, red meat, refined carbohydrates, and saturated fats—could contribute meaningfully to breast cancer prevention as part of comprehensive public health strategies.
2023
Eur J Clinc Nutr
A prospective study of 65,574 postmenopausal French women followed for 20 years found that high adherence to a Paleolithic diet—characterized by high intake of fruits, vegetables, nuts, fish, and lean meat while limiting dairy, grains, legumes, refined sugar, and alcohol—was associated with a 17% reduced breast cancer risk compared to low adherence. Each standard deviation increase in Paleolithic diet score was associated with an 8% lower breast cancer risk, and notably, the protective association was consistent across all breast cancer subtypes, suggesting involvement of non-hormonal mechanisms. These findings provide the first long-term evidence linking Paleolithic dietary patterns to breast cancer prevention and suggest that this eating pattern—which emphasizes whole, unprocessed foods while restricting potentially inflammatory foods—may offer protective benefits beyond what has been observed with other dietary patterns, though further research is needed to identify the specific biological mechanisms involved.
2023
Environ Res
A meta-analysis of 17 epidemiological studies examining cadmium exposure and breast cancer risk found no statistically significant associations overall or when examining specific exposure routes separately (dietary cadmium or biomarker-based studies), with substantial heterogeneity between studies and no clear patterns by menopausal status. The inconclusive findings leave critical questions about whether specific exposure routes (occupational, air pollution, smoking) pose different risks than dietary intake or whether residual confounding by tobacco smoke constituents may influence observed associations. These results highlight the need for future research with better exposure assessment methods that can distinguish between different cadmium sources and routes of exposure, particularly occupational and environmental air pollution exposures that may be more relevant than diet for populations living near industrial areas where cadmium contamination is prevalent.
2023
Environ Pollut
A study analyzing breast milk from 50 U.S. mothers ten years after the PBDE phaseout detected 25 brominated flame retardants including 9 PBDEs (found in 100% of samples), 8 bromophenols (88% of samples), and 8 other BFRs, with PBDE concentrations showing a significant 70% decline since 2002 (median 15.0 ng/g lipid, halving time 12.2 years) but bromophenols and replacement flame retardants reaching concentrations up to 71.1 and 278 ng/g lipid respectively. This represents the first measurement of bromophenols and replacement flame retardants in U.S. breast milk, revealing that while legacy PBDE levels have declined substantially following regulatory action, current-use flame retardants are now contaminating breast milk at concerning levels. The persistent presence of phased-out PBDEs alongside emerging bromophenols and replacement BFRs—many of which are persistent, toxic, and bioaccumulative—indicates ongoing prenatal exposure through breastfeeding and increased risk for adverse impacts on infant neurodevelopment; however, it’s important to note that breastfeeding remains recommended and is still considered safer and more beneficial than formula feeding despite the presence of these contaminants, highlighting the urgent need for policies to reduce flame retardant contamination at the source rather than discouraging breastfeeding.
2023
Nutrients
A case-control study of 42 newly diagnosed, treatment-naïve breast cancer patients and 44 age-matched cancer-free controls at Oregon Health & Science University (2020-2021) found reduced gut microbial diversity in breast cancer patients and enrichment of three specific bacterial genera—Acidaminococcus, Tyzzerella, and Hungatella—in fecal samples from cases, with these genera associated with distinct dietary patterns including vegetables and dairy (Hungatella) and whole fruits (Acidaminococcus). Breast cancer patients also had significantly higher BMI and lower physical activity levels, and microbiome analysis revealed significant differences in composition between cases and controls using 16S rRNA sequencing. These findings highlight complex interactions between the gut microbiome, dietary habits (assessed via National Cancer Institute Diet History Questionnaire), lifestyle factors like weight management and physical activity, and breast cancer risk, suggesting the gut microbiome may serve as a source of biomarkers for breast cancer risk assessment, though larger studies are needed to establish causal relationships and validate these microbial signatures.
2023
Environ Sci Technol
The following study discusses a strategic framework to improve how chemicals are managed in North America. The Essential-Use Approach is a policy that prioritizes restricting the use of chemicals based on necessity and safety. It proposes three guiding questions: Is the chemical essential to the product’s function? Is it the safest option? Is it necessary for health and safety? They also prioritize speed of assesments so that chemicals can be quickly phased out if evidence suggests danger to human health. This study is a call for change and aims to become a tool to simplify decision-making for regulating organizations, help businesses avoid liability related to harmful chemicals, and ultimately improve public health by ensuring only the safest substances are used in consumer products.
2022
Clin Breast Cancer
A case-control study of 150 Iranian women with newly diagnosed breast cancer matched with 150 controls found that women consuming the most pro-inflammatory diets (highest quartile of food-based dietary inflammatory index) had a 138% increased breast cancer risk compared to those with the least inflammatory diets, with the association remaining significant (180% increased risk) after adjusting for confounding factors. The food-based empirical dietary inflammatory index (FDII), which scores dietary patterns based on 27 pre-defined food groups according to their inflammatory potential, showed a clear dose-response relationship with breast cancer risk across quartiles. These findings from a Middle Eastern population reinforce that dietary patterns promoting systemic inflammation substantially increase breast cancer risk, and suggest that practical, food-based dietary modifications—emphasizing anti-inflammatory whole foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts, and fish while limiting pro-inflammatory processed foods, red meat, and refined carbohydrates—could be an effective and culturally adaptable breast cancer prevention strategy.
2022
BMP Nutr Prev Health
A recent study found that ultra-processed food intake is associated with an increased risk of breast cancer in young women across Latin American countries. The study, involving 525 cases and 525 controls, revealed that major contributors to ultra-processed food intake included ready-to-eat meals, sugary beverages, processed meats, and packaged snacks. Ultra-processed foods are rich in unhealthy fats, sugars, and additives that may drive cancer risk. This highlights the need to reduce ultra-processed food consumption and promote healthier, whole-food diets as a preventative measure, especially among young women in Latin America.
2022
Food Chem
A study analyzing 27 vegetable oils using advanced two-dimensional gas chromatography found phthalates—endocrine-disrupting chemicals used as plasticizers that have been linked to cancer—in vegetable oil products, though specific concentration ranges and detection frequencies were not provided in the abstract. The researchers developed a simple, direct analytical method requiring only dilution with solvent (no complex sample preparation) that achieved good repeatability, low detection limits (0.06-2.10 mg/kg), and high accuracy (-9.2% to 10.4%), making it suitable for routine monitoring of phthalate contamination in edible oils. These findings raise concerns about dietary phthalate exposure through cooking oils—a staple food ingredient consumed daily by billions—particularly since phthalates can migrate into oils from plastic packaging, processing equipment, or storage containers, and given their known endocrine-disrupting properties and associations with hormone-related cancers including breast cancer, highlighting the need for stricter regulations on phthalate use in food contact materials and routine monitoring of edible oils for these contaminants.
2022
BMJ
Ultra-processed foods (UPFs), commonly found in ready-to-eat items like packaged snacks, frozen meals, and sodas, are filled with added sugars, unhealthy fats, and harmful chemicals like preservatives and flavor enhancers. These foods are increasingly linked to serious health issues, including obesity and cancer. Studies show that replacing UPFs with whole, unprocessed foods can reduce the risk of disease and improve overall health. The harmful ingredients in these products, such as phthalates and bisphenols, can also disrupt the endocrine system, further increasing the risk of developing serious health problems, including cancer.
2022
Environ Int
A large prospective study within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort examined 318,607 women from nine European countries over a median 14.9 years of follow-up, identifying 13,241 incident invasive breast cancer cases, to assess whether dietary intake of 17 dioxins and 35 polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs)—persistent organic pollutants with endocrine-disrupting and carcinogenic properties—was associated with breast cancer risk. Dietary exposures to dioxins, dioxin-like PCBs (DL-PCBs), non-dioxin-like PCBs (NDL-PCBs), and combined dioxins + DL-PCBs showed no associations with breast cancer incidence (all HRs approximately 1.00-1.01 per 1 SD increase), with results remaining consistent when analyzed by quintile groups, by country, by estrogen receptor status, or after adjusting for contributing food groups and nutritional factors. These findings from one of the largest prospective studies on this topic do not support an association between dietary intake of dioxins and PCBs—the main exposure route for these chemicals in the general population—and breast cancer risk. Despite the established endocrine-disrupting properties of these pollutants and some previous suggestions of positive associations, this comprehensive European study provides reassuring evidence that typical dietary exposures to dioxins and PCBs are not linked to increased breast cancer incidence.
2022
Endocrinology
A review examining PFAS (found in nonstick cookware, food packaging, and stain-resistant fabrics) and parabens (used in personal care products) found that exposure to these endocrine-disrupting chemicals is linked to breast cancer development, with marginalized and socially disadvantaged communities facing disproportionately higher exposures due to structural racism and inequitable environmental conditions. These disparities in chemical exposure may contribute to poorer breast cancer outcomes in these populations, yet breast cancer research continues to underrepresent these communities, limiting our ability to address treatment disparities and improve survival rates. The authors emphasize the urgent need to both reduce EDC exposures in vulnerable communities and increase research inclusion of diverse populations to understand how environmental injustices intersect with breast cancer risk and develop interventions that address these health inequities.
2022
J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol
A comprehensive analysis of 6,793 chemicals in commercial use identified 50 high-priority understudied chemicals that frequently co-occur with known breast cancer-associated chemicals in everyday exposure sources like food, consumer products, and personal care items. Using chemical databases and structural similarity analyses, researchers found these understudied chemicals share physicochemical properties with established mammary carcinogens and potential endocrine disruptors, yet have not been adequately evaluated for breast cancer risk. The findings highlight that real-world chemical exposures occur as mixtures rather than isolated compounds, and that focusing solely on individual well-known chemicals may miss important combination effects—underscoring the urgent need for mixtures-based research in clinical, epidemiological, and toxicological studies to better understand and prevent environmentally-driven breast cancer.
2022
Biomed Pharmacother
A review of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs)—ubiquitous substances found in cosmetics, plastic food packaging, and medicines that enter the body through skin, digestive, or respiratory routes—examined their toxic effects even at microgram doses on the female reproductive system and genetic mechanisms. EDCs disrupt endocrine functions by binding to steroid hormone receptors, interfering with hormone synthesis and secretion, and modulating epigenetic processes that can lead to gene expression disturbances, contributing to neoplastic diseases, neurological disorders, circulatory problems, and reproductive dysfunction. Prenatal exposure can affect offspring development, with particular impacts on ovarian function leading to reduced fertility through disturbances in steroid receptor function, steroidogenesis, and gametogenesis. The review emphasizes that despite widespread exposure to these chemicals in everyday products, continued research is needed to fully understand their effects on the female reproductive system and potential transgenerational impacts mediated through epigenetic mechanisms.
2022
Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr
This systematic review of 131 epidemiological studies evaluated the association between various endocrine-disrupting chemicals, including phthalates and hormonal exposures like contraceptive pills, and the risk of breast cancer. It found that several EDCs, particularly phthalates and oral contraceptive use, were consistently associated with increased breast cancer risk across multiple studies.
2022
Int J Environ Res Public Health
A recent study highlights the risk of Bisphenol A (BPA) exposure from bottled water, emphasizing how temperature can influence BPA leaching into the water. While BPA isn’t used in PET bottle manufacturing, contamination can occur due to recycled materials. Findings indicate that BPA levels in bottled water increase with temperature, even when not at the highest temperatures. BPA, a known endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC), is linked to reproductive health issues, developmental disorders, and even cancer.
2022
Nutr Cancer
An updated meta-analysis of 21 studies including over 346,000 participants found that the most pro-inflammatory diets were associated with a 16% increased breast cancer risk overall, with particularly strong associations among postmenopausal women (13% increased risk), obese women with BMI ≥30 kg/m² (35% increased risk), and populations in developing countries (79% increased risk). The analysis revealed important methodological influences on effect estimates, with stronger associations observed in case-control studies (50% increased risk), studies using hospital-based controls (111% increased risk), and cohort studies with prolonged follow-up (13% increased risk). These findings not only confirm that pro-inflammatory dietary patterns increase breast cancer risk but also demonstrate that the magnitude of association varies substantially by population characteristics and study design, with obesity and postmenopausal status appearing to amplify the carcinogenic effects of inflammatory diets—suggesting that anti-inflammatory dietary interventions may be particularly beneficial for overweight/obese postmenopausal women and populations in developing countries where rapid dietary transitions toward processed, inflammatory foods are occurring.
2022
Talanta Open
This study developed a sensitive analytical method to detect steroid hormones (progestins, estrogens, androgens, and glucocorticoids) in fruits and vegetables, using strawberry, carrot, and spinach as test samples. The optimized extraction procedure uses ultrasonic extraction with minimal methanol, followed by clean-up and analysis via HPLC-ESI-MS/MS, achieving good recoveries at concentrations of 10-50 ng/g. The method was successfully applied to additional produce (raspberry, radish, arugula) and used to analyze market-purchased samples, where some steroids were detected at low ng/g levels. These findings are consistent with existing literature on steroid hormone accumulation in edible plants as emerging environmental pollutants.
2022
Food Chem
This study introduced a novel material, UVM-7 mesoporous silica modified with cyclodextrins, for extracting endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) from apple juice. The cyclodextrin units enhance selectivity, allowing for precise detection of EDCs like bisphenols and parabens in low ng/L concentrations, meeting regulatory limits. When compared with conventional methods, the UVM-7-based extraction shows high recovery rates (94-100%) and low deviation, making it a promising, sensitive tool for identifying harmful chemicals leaching from packaging.
2021
BMC Complement Med Ther
This study focused on the effect that tartrazine (E102), a common yellow food dye, had on the progression of breast cancer in rats that were exposed to 7,12-Dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA), a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) that is widely known for its carcinogenicity. The researchers discovered that tartrazine accelerated the development and growth of tumors in the rats with 100% of rats having early incidents of breast cancer when exposed to both DMBA and tartrazin, and only 80% having early incidence when exposed to DMBA alone. The authors also hypothesized that tartrazine could cause oxidative stress, leading to DNA damage by producing Reactive Oxygen Species. These results may apply to humans as well, and raise concerns about the safety of prolonged or high-dose exposure to synthetic food dyes like tartrazine, especially in individuals who may already have other risk factors for cancer.
2021
Sci Rep
A combined analysis of five Finnish cohorts including 6,374 postmenopausal women examined whether adherence to three dietary quality indices—the modified Nordic Diet (mNDI), modified Mediterranean diet (mMEDI), and modified Alternative Healthy Eating Index (mAHEI)—was associated with breast cancer risk over an average 10-year follow-up during which 274 breast cancer cases were diagnosed. The study found a borderline protective association for the highest versus lowest adherence to the Nordic Diet (HR = 0.67; 95% CI 0.48-1.01), but no significant associations for the Mediterranean diet (HR = 0.88) or Alternative Healthy Eating Index (HR = 0.89). The authors note that the Nordic Diet, which is more aligned with local Finnish food culture, showed the strongest protective trend, though the association did not reach statistical significance. These findings suggest that while healthy dietary patterns have been linked to prevention of various chronic diseases, their relationship with postmenopausal breast cancer risk is not clearly established, with limited evidence for dietary factors beyond alcohol consumption affecting breast cancer risk.
2021
Nutr Cancer
A case-control study of 317 breast cancer patients and 526 controls in Córdoba, Argentina found that women consuming the most pro-inflammatory diets (highest Dietary Inflammatory Index scores) had a 34% increased breast cancer risk compared to those with the least inflammatory diets. The association was markedly stronger among overweight and obese women, who showed a 98% increased risk with pro-inflammatory diets, and the effect was amplified in more urbanized areas compared to rural settings. These findings suggest that dietary patterns promoting systemic inflammation contribute to breast cancer risk, particularly in combination with obesity and urban lifestyle factors, highlighting the potential for dietary interventions focused on anti-inflammatory foods as a prevention strategy, especially in overweight women living in urban environments.