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2025
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf
This study analyzed six xenoestrogens (hormone-disrupting chemicals including phthalates, BPA, and alkylphenols) in atmospheric particles at a university campus in China from 2021 to 2023. BPA was the most prevalent xenoestrogen detected, with concentrations of these chemicals being significantly higher in winter than summer, and the overall cancer and non-cancer health risks were below threshold limits for the general population. However, infants and young children showed significantly higher risk values compared to other age groups, indicating they face greater health risks from atmospheric exposure to these endocrine disruptors. The research provides important data for developing policies to reduce health risks from airborne xenoestrogen exposure, particularly for vulnerable populations like children.
2024
Environ Pollut
A French study of over 10,000 women found that combined exposure to a mixture of four hormone-disrupting air pollutants (benzo[a]pyrene, cadmium, dioxin, and PCB153) was associated with an approximately 10-11% increased risk of breast cancer. Using advanced statistical methods that account for simultaneous exposure to multiple pollutants rather than examining each separately, researchers found that benzo[a]pyrene, cadmium, and PCB153 showed the strongest individual contributions to increased breast cancer risk within the mixture. This research provides important evidence that the cumulative effect of multiple air pollutants acting together on hormone pathways may be a significant risk factor for breast cancer development.
2024
Cancer Causes Cont
This large Canadian population-based study examined whether long-term residential exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)—widespread environmental pollutants from sources like vehicle exhaust and industrial emissions—increases breast cancer risk. Using 20 years of residential history data, researchers found that exposure to fluoranthene (a common PAH) was associated with significantly increased risk of premenopausal breast cancer, with women in moderately high exposure areas showing 59-148% higher risk compared to those in low-exposure areas. The associations with postmenopausal breast cancer were inconsistent, with only one analysis showing a modest increased risk. These findings support the hypothesis that ambient PAH exposure may increase the risk of breast cancer in premenopausal women, though the relationship appears complex and requires further investigation.
2024
Eur J Cancer
A French study of over 5,400 women found a suggested 28% increased risk of breast cancer associated with long-term exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) air pollution for each 10 µg/m³ increase in average concentration, though this association did not reach statistical significance, with weaker trends also observed for PM10 and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). This study uniquely examined air pollution exposure at both residential and workplace locations, finding that residential and workplace pollution levels were highly correlated, suggesting that residential exposure assessments can serve as a reasonable proxy for total pollution exposure. The findings contribute to growing evidence linking air pollution to breast cancer risk and suggest that future research should also consider exposure during commuting to capture complete pollution exposure patterns.
2023
J Endocrinol Invest
A comprehensive literature review examining environmental endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and hormone-related cancers concludes that several EDCs can be definitively classified as carcinogenic, including dioxin and cadmium for breast and thyroid cancer, arsenic and dioxin for prostate cancer, and organochlorines for testicular cancer. The review highlights that fetuses and newborns are most vulnerable to endocrine disruption, with adverse effects potentially manifesting at different ages throughout life, making it difficult to assess the full health impact of EDC exposure. The authors emphasize that EDCs represent a major environmental health issue requiring effective prevention policies, increased public awareness, and protective measures—particularly for pregnant women—along with standardized testing criteria to evaluate the carcinogenic potential of new chemicals before they enter widespread use.
2023
Int J Cancer
This study of over 1,200 postmenopausal women found that higher blood levels of PFOS (a common “forever chemical” found in items like stain-resistant fabrics and food packaging) were associated with 59-134% increased risk of hormone receptor-positive breast cancers, while PFOA (another widespread PFAS chemical) showed modest associations with hormone receptor-negative tumors. PFAS are called “forever chemicals” because they persist indefinitely in the environment and human body, and these findings suggest they may contribute to breast cancer through hormone disruption. These results add to growing concerns about PFAS exposure from contaminated water, food packaging, and consumer products, though the different associations for PFOS and PFOA by tumor subtype require further investigation to fully understand how these chemicals affect breast cancer development.
2023
Environ Sci Poll Res
This meta-analysis pooled data from 17 epidemiological studies to examine whether exposure to the dioxin compound 2,3,7,8-TCDD or to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is associated with breast cancer risk. The authors found evidence of a modest but statistically significant increased breast cancer risk associated with TCDD levels in the body,
2022
Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr
A systematic review of 131 epidemiological studies examining endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and breast cancer risk found evidence that exposure to various EDCs—including pesticides (DDT/DDE, atrazine, dioxin), synthetic chemicals (BPA, phthalates, PFAS, PCBs, PBDEs), and other compounds found in everyday products—may elevate breast cancer risk, particularly when exposure occurs during early life. The review identified food as a major route of EDC exposure and emphasized that because most EDCs persist in the environment and accumulate in the body over time, long-term multi-generational health impacts need to be assessed. The authors call for improved exposure assessments of EDCs in food and food packaging, along with careful evaluation of their links to breast cancer development to inform policy-making and regulations aimed at protecting public health.
2022
Chemosphere
Researchers measured 41 endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in women living in the Greater Manila Area, Philippines, comparing those with and without breast cancer. They found that certain perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) were significantly associated with breast cancer, with some chemicals showing dramatically increased risk: PFDoA was associated with a 1,263% increased risk, PFDA with an 826% increased risk, and PFHxA with a 166% increased risk. Long-chain PFAS levels were higher in women from heavily industrialized areas compared to the National Capital Region. This study provides the first baseline data on EDC exposure levels in Filipino women, filling a critical gap in knowledge about chemical exposures in Southeast Asian populations and suggesting that industrial pollution may be contributing to elevated PFAS levels and breast cancer risk.
2022
Cancer Epiemiol
The first Indian case-control study examining phthalates (chemicals widely used in plastics, cosmetics, and food packaging) and breast cancer found that women with higher urinary levels of di-butyl phthalate (DBP) had 1.5 times increased breast cancer risk, while those with higher DEHP levels had nearly 3 times increased risk. Analysis of breast tumor tissue revealed mutations in several genes known to respond to phthalate exposure, affecting pathways involved in hormones, metabolism, and cancer development. These findings suggest that exposure to certain phthalates may increase breast cancer risk through genetic changes, though larger studies are needed to confirm these results and understand how early-life exposures might contribute to cancer development later in life.
2022
Environ Int
A large French study of nearly 68,000 women followed for over 21 years found that dietary exposure to PBDEs (flame retardant chemicals) was associated with increased breast cancer risk, but importantly, this association was modified by vegetable oil consumption. Women who consumed higher amounts of vegetable oil (≥4.6 g/day) and had the highest PBDE intake showed a 23% increased breast cancer risk, while those with low vegetable oil consumption showed no increased risk regardless of PBDE exposure. These findings suggest that the interaction between diet and chemical contaminants is important to consider when developing public health recommendations, as certain dietary patterns may amplify or mitigate the health risks associated with environmental chemical exposures.
2021
Environ Res
This large U.S. study using NHANES data found that multiple PFAS chemicals were associated with increased odds of both breast and ovarian cancer, with dose-response relationships showing dramatically higher risks at the highest exposure levels—women in the highest quartile of exposure had 130% increased odds for breast cancer (up to 607% for PFHxS) and 77-125% increased odds for ovarian cancer compared to those in the lowest quartile. Different PFAS chemicals showed stronger correlations with different cancers: PFOA was most strongly correlated with breast cancer while PFHxS was most strongly correlated with ovarian cancer, suggesting these endocrine-disrupting chemicals may affect different hormone-sensitive tissues through distinct mechanisms. No associations were found with prostate or uterine cancers. These findings are particularly concerning because PFAS are ubiquitous environmental contaminants found in everyday products and the water supply, and the strong dose-response relationships suggest that reducing PFAS exposure could potentially lower the risk of these estrogen-related cancers in women.
2021
Int J Cancer
In a nested case-control study of over 1,000 breast cancer cases and matched controls from the Multiethnic Cohort, pre-diagnostic urinary concentrations of bisphenol A (BPA), triclosan, and parabens were evaluated in relation to breast cancer risk. BPA was not significantly associated with risk; the highest tertile of total parabens had OR ≈ 0.77 (95% CI: 0.62–0.97) relative to the lowest tertile, indicating a modest inverse association. These results suggest that the relationships between common endocrine-disrupting chemicals and breast cancer may be more complex than anticipated and vary by exposure type.
2020
Environ Int
This Taiwanese study of 239 women found that higher plasma levels of PFOS (a “forever chemical”) were associated with 134% increased breast cancer risk in women aged 50 and younger, with each natural log unit increase in exposure more than doubling the odds of developing the disease. Both PFOS and PFHxS (another PFAS chemical) showed positive associations specifically with estrogen receptor-positive breast tumors in younger women, suggesting these endocrine-disrupting chemicals may particularly affect hormone-sensitive breast cancers during reproductive years. These findings are concerning because PFAS are ubiquitous environmental contaminants found in water, food packaging, and consumer products, and the study adds to growing evidence that these persistent chemicals may contribute to rising breast cancer rates among younger women. The results highlight the potential health consequences of widespread PFAS contamination, particularly for women of reproductive age who may face elevated risk of hormone-driven breast cancers.
2020
Int J Cancer
his French study of 388 women found that higher blood levels of PFOS (a “forever chemical”) were associated with 122-133% increased breast cancer risk for estrogen receptor-positive tumors and 147-176% increased risk for progesterone receptor-positive tumors, with a clear dose-response relationship showing increasing risk at higher exposure levels. Interestingly, the study found different patterns for hormone receptor-negative tumors, where only low-to-moderate levels of PFOS and PFOA were associated with dramatically increased risk (up to 1,440% for estrogen receptor-negative tumors at moderate PFOS levels). These findings suggest that PFAS chemicals—which are widespread in human blood worldwide due to contamination from products like stain-resistant fabrics, non-stick cookware, and food packaging—may contribute to breast cancer through different mechanisms depending on tumor type, highlighting the complexity of how these persistent environmental chemicals affect breast cancer risk.
2019
Environ Int
This population-based case-control study investigated whether occupational exposure to alkylphenolic compounds—endocrine-disrupting chemicals widely used in industry—is associated with breast and prostate cancer. The study included over 5,600 participants and found that occupational exposure to alkylphenolic compounds was modestly associated with increased breast cancer risk (23% increase), particularly from exposure to domestic cleaning products and nonylphenol ethoxylates. No significant associations were found between alkylphenolic compound exposure and prostate cancer overall, except among men exposed through cosmetics and personal hygiene products. The authors conclude these findings suggest a modest link between occupational alkylphenolic compound exposure and breast cancer that requires further confirmation in additional studies.
2018
Environ Health
This longitudinal study examined how exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) affects the timing of menarche in Chilean girls by measuring 26 phenol and phthalate compounds in urine samples collected before breast development and during adolescence. The researchers found that different chemicals had varying effects depending on when exposure was measured: higher early exposure to DEHP was associated with later menarche, while early exposure to certain phenols and later exposure to some phthalates were linked to earlier menarche. The study also revealed that body weight influenced these effects, with overweight or obese girls showing earlier menarche when exposed to higher levels of certain chemicals like triclosan, while normal-weight girls did not show this association. These findings demonstrate that specific EDCs can disrupt normal sexual development in girls, with timing of exposure and body weight being important factors.
2018
Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev
This study examined how exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) during puberty affects breast tissue development in 200 Chilean girls by measuring urinary concentrations of phenols and phthalates at two stages of breast development and assessing breast density. The researchers found that certain phthalate metabolites were associated with increased breast density measures – specifically, higher levels of monocarboxyisooctyl phthalate were linked to 7% higher percent dense breast tissue, and monoethyl phthalate was associated with increased fibroglandular volume. Bisphenol A showed a U-shaped relationship with fibroglandular volume, where girls with middle-level exposures had at least 10% lower fibroglandular volume compared to those with low or high exposures. The findings suggest that developing breast tissue is vulnerable to certain EDCs during childhood and adolescence, which may have implications for future breast cancer risk since breast density is a known risk factor.
Cancer Epidemiol
A study of 46,709 women in the Sister Study found that use of permanent hair dye and chemical straighteners was associated with increased breast cancer risk, with particularly strong associations among Black women. Permanent hair dye use was linked to a 45% increased risk in Black women, while chemical straightener use showed an 18% increased risk overall, with higher risks associated with more frequent use. Women who applied semipermanent dyes to others showed a 28% increased risk. These findings suggest that endocrine-disrupting chemicals and carcinogens in hair products, which are often present at higher concentrations in products marketed to Black women, may contribute to breast cancer development.
2025
Ecotoxicol Env Saf
A Mendelian randomization study using genetic data from European populations found that specific endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) were causally associated with different breast cancer subtypes: n-butyl paraben (n-BuP) increased Luminal A risk, mono-methyl phthalate decreased Luminal B risk, and mono-iso-butyl phthalate (MiBP) increased triple-negative breast cancer risk. Mediation analysis revealed that blood metabolites—including caffeic acid sulfate and caffeine metabolism ratios—partially explained the n-BuP effect on Luminal A, while methylsuccinate mediated the MiBP effect on triple-negative cancer, and epigenetic analysis identified specific DNA methylation sites associated with EDC exposure and breast cancer risk. These findings provide the first genetic evidence suggesting causal relationships between specific EDC exposures and breast cancer subtypes through distinct metabolic and epigenetic pathways, identifying potential biomarkers for early detection and highlighting the heterogeneous effects of different EDCs on breast cancer biology—underscoring the need for chemical-specific and subtype-specific prevention strategies rather than treating all EDCs or breast cancers as uniform entities.
2025
Int J Hyg Environ Health
New research highlights the link between endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and earlier breast development in girls. A systematic review of 68 studies found that 10 out of 14 high-quality studies linked prenatal and postnatal exposure to EDCs like organohalogenated compounds and phthalates to earlier thelarche. With thelarche now occurring nearly three months earlier per decade, these findings raise serious concerns about long-term health risks, including breast cancer. Reducing exposure to harmful chemicals in everyday products is crucial to protecting hormonal health and preventing early puberty.
2025
J Hazard Mater
This study investigated whether DEHCH, a newly developed alternative plasticizer, has safer endocrine-disrupting effects compared to conventional phthalates and other alternative plasticizers using computer modeling, cell studies, and zebrafish testing. The researchers found that DEHCH showed lower binding affinity to hormone receptors and did not affect hormone-related gene expression or neurosteroid levels in zebrafish, unlike the other tested plasticizers. In contrast, conventional phthalates (DEHP, DINP) and previously proposed alternatives (DINCH, DEHTP) caused hyperactivity in zebrafish and altered hormone-related gene expression and neurosteroid concentrations. The results suggest that DEHCH may be a safer alternative to both conventional phthalates and previously proposed substitutes in terms of endocrine disruption and neurological effects.
2025
Sci Rep
A large U.S. study of 4,455 people found that exposure to triclosan (TRS)—an antibacterial chemical commonly found in soaps, toothpaste, and personal care products—was associated with more than double the risk of breast cancer at moderate exposure levels, with the relationship following an inverted U-shape pattern. The association was strongest among overweight individuals, people under 60 years old, and white participants, while other tested chemicals (including bisphenol A, benzophenone-3, and parabens) showed no significant link to breast cancer risk. These findings suggest that triclosan exposure may be an important modifiable risk factor for breast cancer, particularly for certain population groups, though more research is needed to understand the underlying mechanisms and confirm causality.
2024
J Hazard Mater
A study analyzing 162 non-alcoholic beverages found that 63 endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) were present in 144 products, with concentrations highest in metal-canned beverages and significantly lower or absent in glass, plastic, and carton packaging. Bisphenol A (BPA) levels were notably elevated in canned drinks compared to identical products from the same manufacturers packaged in glass or plastic, and researchers identified two previously unknown BPA structural isomers in beverages for the first time. The calculated daily BPA exposure from average beverage consumption (364 mL/day) exceeded the European Food Safety Authority’s revised safety guideline by up to 2,000-fold, suggesting that regular consumption of canned non-alcoholic beverages—particularly by young children—poses a potential health hazard due to EDC exposure from packaging materials.
2024
Environ Res
Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs)—including bisphenol A, phthalates, parabens, pesticides, and heavy metals commonly found in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and packaging—are widespread environmental pollutants that interfere with the body’s hormone system. Research shows EDCs have harmful effects on women’s reproductive health, contributing to conditions such as endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome, uterine fibroids, premature ovarian failure, menstrual irregularities, and infertility. This review emphasizes the need for healthcare professionals to consider environmental exposures when evaluating patients, highlights potential mechanisms by which EDCs affect female reproduction, and discusses how nutritional interventions and stricter environmental regulations could help reduce EDC-related health risks. Understanding the link between EDCs and women’s health is crucial for developing protective strategies, informing treatment approaches, and shaping public policies to safeguard reproductive and overall well-being. The study seeks to advise that couples attempting to conceive should avoid endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) such as BPA, pesticides, and phthalates. Following this advice is found to be crucial during the prenatal and periconceptional periods, where fetal development and growth are critical in this window.
2024
Environ Toxicol Pharmacol
A comprehensive review examines endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) classified as carcinogens—compounds recognized for decades as top priority toxicants and persistent organic pollutants due to their ability to disrupt endocrine signaling—analyzing their hazard identification, human exposure routes, carcinogenic potency, and mechanisms of action across different organs. The review discusses major endocrine-disrupting carcinogens and their cancer-causing potential while identifying critical research gaps, methodological bottlenecks, and limitations in analytical detection techniques. This analysis underscores the serious public health concern posed by EDCs with carcinogenic properties, highlighting the need for improved understanding of their mechanisms, better analytical methods for detection and measurement, and addressing research limitations to protect human health from these ubiquitous environmental contaminants that can both disrupt hormonal systems and initiate cancer development.
2024
Environ Health Perspect
Researchers analyzed 279 chemicals known to cause mammary tumors in rodents and identified 642 additional chemicals that activate estrogen or progesterone signaling, finding that tumor-causing chemicals were significantly more likely to stimulate hormone production, activate estrogen receptors, or damage DNA—characteristics that likely increase breast cancer risk in humans. The study found that more mammary carcinogens worked by increasing hormone production than by directly activating estrogen receptors, with chemicals showing stronger hormone-disrupting effects being most likely to cause tumors, demonstrating a clear dose-response relationship. These findings suggest that hundreds of chemicals currently in use may pose unrecognized breast cancer risks and should not be assumed safe without specific testing for breast effects, with the strongest evidence chemicals prioritized for exposure reduction and improved testing methods needed to identify additional hazardous substances. The research provides a framework for identifying and regulating chemicals that may contribute to breast cancer through hormone disruption and genetic damage—mechanisms supported by both animal and human studies.
2024
Environ Sci Technol
A study of 751 reproductive-aged Black women found that the relationship between personal care product (PCP) use and exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) varied significantly by socioeconomic status (SES), with different patterns of chemical exposure from the same products depending on women’s education, income, and employment. For example, vaginal powder use was associated with higher phenol exposure (a class of EDCs) among lower SES women but showed no such association in higher SES women, suggesting that product formulations, brands, or usage patterns may differ across SES groups. These findings highlight that Black women face inequitable EDC exposures that are influenced by both race and socioeconomic factors, underscoring the need for targeted public health interventions that address these intersecting disparities in chemical exposures from everyday products
2024
Int J Env Res Pub Health
This study surveyed 746 Kenyan women about their hair product use and found that nearly 60% had used chemical relaxers and one-third had used hair dyes, despite many expressing concerns about health risks including breast cancer. Older women and those working in sales and service industries were more likely to use these products, which may contain endocrine-disrupting chemicals linked to breast cancer. Surprisingly, women’s awareness of potential health risks did not consistently lead to reduced use of these products, suggesting that concern alone may not be enough to change behavior. These findings are particularly important for Kenya, where breast cancer rates are rising, and highlight the need for better education about chemical exposures in hair products and strategies to reduce potentially harmful exposures.
2024
Environ Int
A study in mice found that exposure to DEHP—a common chemical used to make plastics flexible—disrupts the gut-mammary connection, causing changes in gut bacteria, intestinal inflammation, and direct damage to mammary (breast) tissue that could impair milk production. DEHP altered gut microbiome composition (increasing some bacteria while decreasing others), changed blood metabolite levels, and its breakdown product (MEHP) triggered cell death in mammary tissue through multiple pathways. These findings raise concerns about DEHP exposure from plastics affecting both human breast health and dairy production in livestock, while identifying potential therapeutic targets to counteract the chemical’s harmful effects on the gut-breast axis.
2024
Crit Rev Toxicol
A meta-analysis of 13 observational studies through May 2022 examined the dose-response relationship between per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) exposure—including PFOS, PFOA, PFNA, PFDA, and PFHxS—and risk of breast, prostate, colorectal, and ovarian cancers. The highest versus lowest exposure analysis found no significant associations between any PFAS compound and breast cancer (ORs ranging from 0.88-1.29), ovarian cancer (OR = 1.43), prostate cancer (OR = 1.05), or colorectal cancer (OR = 0.77). However, linear dose-response analysis revealed unexpected inverse associations, with each 1 ng/ml increase in PFNA and 2 ng/ml increase in PFOA associated with significant decreases in breast cancer risk (RR = 0.67 and 0.94, respectively), though non-linear analysis found no significant changes. The findings provide no evidence that PFAS exposure increases cancer risk for these sites, and the unexpected inverse associations observed in linear dose-response analyses—suggesting potential protective effects—are unexplained and may reflect study artifacts, reverse causation, or confounding factors rather than true biological protection, warranting further investigation to clarify these paradoxical relationships and determine whether they reflect real phenomena or methodological limitations.
2023
Foods
A review of regulations for endocrine-disrupting chemicals and persistent organic pollutants in infant formula found that while breast milk remains the healthiest option, infant formula must be strictly monitored to ensure it is pollutant-free, particularly given the vulnerability of newborns to chemical exposures. Current regulations and upper limits for contaminants in infant formula vary worldwide, though standardized policies exist to protect infants, and continuous monitoring is required to maintain safety standards. The authors emphasize that risk assessment studies are limited but urgently needed to better understand exposure variations and evaluate the health risks infants face from dietary exposure to pollutants during this critical developmental period.
2023
Toxicol Sci
A high-throughput transcriptomic study using MCF-7 breast cancer cells exposed to BPA and 15 alternative chemicals (0.0005-100 µM for 48 hours) found that 8 alternative chemicals activated estrogen receptor alpha (ERα), with bisphenol AF identified as the most potent, followed by BPA and bisphenol C, and benchmark concentration analysis revealing that BPA and transcriptionally active alternatives enriched similar gene sets associated with increased cell division and cancer-related processes at comparable concentrations. Global transcriptomic and ERα-specific points of departure produced highly consistent potency rankings, and pathway analysis showed that active alternatives induced hazards similar to BPA through shared molecular mechanisms. These findings reveal that many BPA replacement chemicals used since initial 2010 Canadian regulatory action are not safer alternatives and may pose similar or greater hazards at comparable exposure levels despite being data-poor compounds with limited toxicological assessment, supporting the use of transcriptomic profiling for read-across risk assessment of structurally related chemicals and raising concerns about regrettable substitution in which one harmful chemical is simply replaced with equally harmful alternatives.
2023
Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am
Multiple social and structural determinants of health undoubtedly contribute to the marked racial/ethnic-, gender-, and socioeconomic-based disparities in endocrine health; however, the contribution of environmental injustice is vastly underappreciated. Indeed, those groups disproportionately burdened by endocrine disorders are often exposed to higher levels of various EDCs, including PCBs, phthalates, bisphenols, OC pesticides, air pollutants, PFASs, toxic metals/metalloids, and BFRs. These chemicals threaten our reproductive and metabolic health, contributing to diabetes prevalences, obesity, and disorders related to hormonal regulation. This review increases awareness of these disparities and encouraged equitable healthcare for those who are disadvantaged.
2023
Frontiers
This meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the association between exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), including phthalates and other common environmental pollutants, and breast cancer risk. The study found that certain EDCs—such as p,p′-DDT, chlordane, HCH, and specific PCBs—were positively associated with increased breast cancer risk, while a few compounds like BBP and PFDoDA showed a negative association.
2023
Environ Pollut
A 2022 study tested 571 cash register receipts from U.S. retailers to assess endocrine-disrupting chemicals in thermal paper and compared findings to a 2017 study. Bisphenol S (BPS) was found in 85% of receipts, Pergafast 201 in 12%, and bisphenol A (BPA) in only 1%, indicating a shift away from BPA. National retailers were more likely than local ones to use non-bisphenol alternatives. These findings highlight potential health risks from handling receipts, as BPS and other chemicals can still pose significant exposure concerns.
2022
Sci Rep
A study of drinking water found widespread contamination with phthalates (plastic chemicals) and bisphenol-A, with DEHP—the most common phthalate detected—exceeding safety limits in concentrations up to 8,351 µg/L in winter and 410 µg/L in summer, posing potential health risks to consumers. The research revealed significant seasonal variations with higher contamination in winter than summer, and health risk assessment showed that DEHP exposure from drinking water alone exceeded safe levels (hazard quotient >1), raising concerns about hormone disruption and potential breast cancer risk. These findings highlight an urgent need for water treatment plants to implement better technologies to remove these endocrine-disrupting chemicals and ensure safe drinking water, as current contamination levels may threaten both human and environmental health.
2022
Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr
This systematic review of 131 epidemiological studies evaluated the association between various endocrine-disrupting chemicals, including phthalates and hormonal exposures like contraceptive pills, and the risk of breast cancer. It found that several EDCs, particularly phthalates and oral contraceptive use, were consistently associated with increased breast cancer risk across multiple studies.
2022
Biomed Pharmacother
A review of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs)—ubiquitous substances found in cosmetics, plastic food packaging, and medicines that enter the body through skin, digestive, or respiratory routes—examined their toxic effects even at microgram doses on the female reproductive system and genetic mechanisms. EDCs disrupt endocrine functions by binding to steroid hormone receptors, interfering with hormone synthesis and secretion, and modulating epigenetic processes that can lead to gene expression disturbances, contributing to neoplastic diseases, neurological disorders, circulatory problems, and reproductive dysfunction. Prenatal exposure can affect offspring development, with particular impacts on ovarian function leading to reduced fertility through disturbances in steroid receptor function, steroidogenesis, and gametogenesis. The review emphasizes that despite widespread exposure to these chemicals in everyday products, continued research is needed to fully understand their effects on the female reproductive system and potential transgenerational impacts mediated through epigenetic mechanisms.
2022
Food Chem
This study introduced a novel material, UVM-7 mesoporous silica modified with cyclodextrins, for extracting endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) from apple juice. The cyclodextrin units enhance selectivity, allowing for precise detection of EDCs like bisphenols and parabens in low ng/L concentrations, meeting regulatory limits. When compared with conventional methods, the UVM-7-based extraction shows high recovery rates (94-100%) and low deviation, making it a promising, sensitive tool for identifying harmful chemicals leaching from packaging.
2022
Chemosphere
A study analyzing 12 commercial bottled water brands found that all tested products contained 2-6 different phthalate chemicals at concentrations ranging from 6.3 to 112.2 ng/mL, with di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) showing the highest levels followed by DEHP, DiBP, DMP, DEP, and DiPP. Using an optimized solid-phase microextraction method combined with tandem mass spectrometry, researchers detected these endocrine-disrupting chemicals—which leach from plastic bottles into drinking water—at levels detectable with limits as low as 0.3-2.6 ng/mL. These findings raise significant public health concerns given that phthalates are recognized endocrine disruptors with estrogenic properties that have been linked to breast cancer and other hormone-related health effects, and that billions of people worldwide consume bottled water daily with cumulative lifetime exposures potentially reaching harmful levels, highlighting the urgent need for regulatory limits on phthalates in bottled water and increased adoption of alternative packaging materials that don’t leach endocrine-disrupting chemicals.
2022
Endocrinology
A review examining PFAS (found in nonstick cookware, food packaging, and stain-resistant fabrics) and parabens (used in personal care products) found that exposure to these endocrine-disrupting chemicals is linked to breast cancer development, with marginalized and socially disadvantaged communities facing disproportionately higher exposures due to structural racism and inequitable environmental conditions. These disparities in chemical exposure may contribute to poorer breast cancer outcomes in these populations, yet breast cancer research continues to underrepresent these communities, limiting our ability to address treatment disparities and improve survival rates. The authors emphasize the urgent need to both reduce EDC exposures in vulnerable communities and increase research inclusion of diverse populations to understand how environmental injustices intersect with breast cancer risk and develop interventions that address these health inequities.
2022
Ecotoxicology
An experimental study using wild-type and thyroid hormone receptor alpha knockout (thrαa⁻/⁻) zebrafish embryos/larvae found that avobenzone and octinoxate—organic UV filters commonly used in sunscreens and widely detected in water—disrupt the thyroid endocrine system, with significantly lower survival rates in thrαa⁻/⁻ fish exposed to ≥3 μM of either compound, indicating the thyroid hormone receptor plays a crucial role in their toxicity. Avobenzone exposure increased the T3:T4 ratio with upregulation of the deio2 gene, while both chemicals decreased T4 levels and triggered compensatory upregulation of hypothalamus and pituitary genes (trh, tshβ, tshr), indicating feedback mechanisms attempting to maintain hormonal homeostasis. These findings demonstrate that two widely used sunscreen ingredients act as thyroid endocrine disruptors by affecting thyroid hormone receptors and disrupting the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis, raising concerns about aquatic environmental contamination from these chemicals and potential impacts on thyroid function in exposed organisms, including implications for human exposure through water and dermal application.
2022
Molecules
A review of endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) in drinking water examines this emerging class of environmental contaminants—ranging from naturally occurring to synthetic compounds—that exist as complex mixtures at trace levels but can cause adverse health effects even at low concentrations. The review covers the perceived and actual health risks of EDC exposure through water ingestion (a major human exposure route), regulatory efforts to limit contamination, and analytical methods including advanced sample preparation, instrumentation, and bioassays for multiclass EDC identification and quantitation. Given that human exposure to EDCs via drinking water poses significant health concerns even at trace concentrations, the ability to detect and evaluate EDC contamination with high sensitivity and accuracy is critically important for protecting public health and informing regulatory policy.
2022
Food Chem
A study analyzing 27 vegetable oils using advanced two-dimensional gas chromatography found phthalates—endocrine-disrupting chemicals used as plasticizers that have been linked to cancer—in vegetable oil products, though specific concentration ranges and detection frequencies were not provided in the abstract. The researchers developed a simple, direct analytical method requiring only dilution with solvent (no complex sample preparation) that achieved good repeatability, low detection limits (0.06-2.10 mg/kg), and high accuracy (-9.2% to 10.4%), making it suitable for routine monitoring of phthalate contamination in edible oils. These findings raise concerns about dietary phthalate exposure through cooking oils—a staple food ingredient consumed daily by billions—particularly since phthalates can migrate into oils from plastic packaging, processing equipment, or storage containers, and given their known endocrine-disrupting properties and associations with hormone-related cancers including breast cancer, highlighting the need for stricter regulations on phthalate use in food contact materials and routine monitoring of edible oils for these contaminants.
2022
Environ Int
A large prospective study within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort examined 318,607 women from nine European countries over a median 14.9 years of follow-up, identifying 13,241 incident invasive breast cancer cases, to assess whether dietary intake of 17 dioxins and 35 polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs)—persistent organic pollutants with endocrine-disrupting and carcinogenic properties—was associated with breast cancer risk. Dietary exposures to dioxins, dioxin-like PCBs (DL-PCBs), non-dioxin-like PCBs (NDL-PCBs), and combined dioxins + DL-PCBs showed no associations with breast cancer incidence (all HRs approximately 1.00-1.01 per 1 SD increase), with results remaining consistent when analyzed by quintile groups, by country, by estrogen receptor status, or after adjusting for contributing food groups and nutritional factors. These findings from one of the largest prospective studies on this topic do not support an association between dietary intake of dioxins and PCBs—the main exposure route for these chemicals in the general population—and breast cancer risk. Despite the established endocrine-disrupting properties of these pollutants and some previous suggestions of positive associations, this comprehensive European study provides reassuring evidence that typical dietary exposures to dioxins and PCBs are not linked to increased breast cancer incidence.
2022
Int J Environ Res Public Health
A recent study highlights the risk of Bisphenol A (BPA) exposure from bottled water, emphasizing how temperature can influence BPA leaching into the water. While BPA isn’t used in PET bottle manufacturing, contamination can occur due to recycled materials. Findings indicate that BPA levels in bottled water increase with temperature, even when not at the highest temperatures. BPA, a known endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC), is linked to reproductive health issues, developmental disorders, and even cancer.
2021
Adv Pharmacol
A comprehensive review examining endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in breast tissue concludes that hundreds of these environmental chemicals are entering human breast tissue and contributing to the global rise in breast cancer incidence through multiple biological mechanisms. Laboratory studies demonstrate that EDCs can activate all the established “hallmarks of cancer” in human breast cancer cells—even at concentrations measured in actual human breast tissue—with effects amplified when chemicals are present as mixtures rather than individually. The authors argue that EDCs must now be formally recognized as a breast cancer risk factor to enable prevention strategies that include reducing environmental chemical exposures, particularly given that the varied mixtures of EDCs found in individual breast tissues act through overlapping mechanisms to promote cancer development.
2021
Environ Res
Biodegradable polymers are emerging as a promising solution for removing endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) from wastewater. EDC’s, found in pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and personal care products pose serious health risks, impacting the endocrine system and disrupting reproductive health. Traditional water treatments often fail to fully remove EDCs. Biodegradable polymers, with strong adsorptive properties, offer a sustainable and effective method, helping to minimize EDC exposure and protect human and environmental health.
2021
Endocrinology
A comprehensive review of bisphenol A (BPA) research spanning over 20 years—from the landmark 1997 study showing reproductive effects in male mouse offspring at 2 µg/kg/day through the CLARITY-BPA study designed to bridge regulatory and scientific disagreements—found that thousands of animal studies and over 100 epidemiological studies report adverse effects at low doses, with CLARITY-BPA showing effects at 2.5 µg/kg/day, leading independent experts to recommend dropping the lowest observed adverse effect level 20,000-fold from 50,000 to 2.5 µg/kg/day. Despite this overwhelming evidence, the FDA continues to assert BPA is safe by rejecting low-dose data as “not biologically plausible” based on four incorrect assumptions criticized by the Endocrine Society as violating basic principles of endocrinology: that dose responses must be monotonic, thresholds exist below which there are no effects, both sexes must respond similarly, and only traditional toxicological guideline studies are valid. The review highlights a fundamental divide between regulatory approaches and endocrine science, demonstrating that traditional toxicology methods are insufficient for evaluating endocrine-disrupting chemicals like BPA, which can cause non-monotonic dose responses, sex-specific effects, and low-dose effects that challenge conventional assumptions about chemical safety, yet regulatory agencies continue to ignore modern endocrinology principles in favor of outdated toxicological paradigms.