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2020
Food Chem Tox
This article discusses the harmful impacts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) found in deep-fried foods. It highlights their endocrine-disrupting, genotoxic, and carcinogenic abilities when oils used for deep frying are heated repeatedly or at high temperatures. PAHs disrupt steroidogenic pathways which can lead to hormonal imbalances of estrogen and testosterone causing lower sperm quality, estrogenic effects, and endocrine related disorders. Furthermore, PAHs are linked to increased cancer risks through genotoxicity which can cause mutations in the cell. Organ sites that can be affected by this cancer risk are the breast, prostate, colorectal, renal, and pancreas.
2020
Environ Int
A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of 10 cohort studies found no clear association between cadmium exposure and breast cancer risk, whether assessed through dietary intake or urinary excretion levels, with all analyses showing non-significant results. Analysis restricted to postmenopausal women also showed no associations, and while data were insufficient to examine potential associations in specific subgroups defined by age, smoking status, or hormone receptor status, the overall evidence does not support cadmium as a breast cancer risk factor. The authors note that available data were too limited to rule out possible associations in selected vulnerable subgroups, highlighting the need for future studies with better exposure assessment and larger sample sizes to detect subgroup-specific effects if they exist.
2020
Int J Cancer
A prospective study of 42,012 women in the Sister Study followed participants for an average of 7.6 years and identified 1,536 invasive breast cancer cases to examine the association between meat consumption types and breast cancer risk. The study found that higher red meat consumption was associated with a 23% increased risk of invasive breast cancer (highest vs. lowest quartile), and when total meat consumption was held constant in a substitution model, replacing red meat with poultry reduced breast cancer risk by 28%. No associations were found between cooking practices, heterocyclic amines (carcinogens formed during high-temperature cooking), or heme iron from red meat and breast cancer risk, suggesting the red meat-breast cancer link may operate through other mechanisms. The findings suggest that women could potentially reduce their breast cancer risk by replacing red meat with poultry in their diets, though the biological mechanisms underlying this association require further investigation.
2020
Nutrients
A prospective cohort study of 10,930 Spanish female university graduates in the SUN (“Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra”) project examined whether adherence to the 2018 World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research (WCRF/AICR) cancer prevention recommendations was associated with breast cancer risk. The study used an 8-item score measuring compliance with recommendations including body fat, physical activity, consumption of wholegrains/vegetables/fruit/beans, avoidance of fast foods and processed meats, limited sugar-sweetened drinks and alcohol, and breastfeeding. While no significant association was found for overall breast cancer risk, women who scored highest on adherence (>5 points vs. ≤3 points) had a 73% reduced risk of postmenopausal breast cancer after adjusting for other variables. The findings suggest that following multiple WCRF/AICR lifestyle and nutritional recommendations together may significantly reduce postmenopausal breast cancer risk through their combined protective effects.
2020
Breast Cancer Res Treat
A pilot study of 37 breast cancer patients found that women with HER2-positive breast cancer (an aggressive subtype) had 12-23% lower gut bacterial diversity and different bacterial compositions compared to HER2-negative patients, with less Firmicutes and more Bacteroidetes bacteria. The research also revealed that women who started menstruating early (age 11 or younger) and those with higher body fat had lower gut bacterial diversity, suggesting links between gut microbiome composition and known breast cancer risk factors. While the study was small, these findings indicate that gut bacteria composition may be connected to both breast cancer characteristics and established risk factors, warranting larger studies to better understand these relationships and their potential implications for prevention and treatment.
2019
Eur J Clinic Nutr
A meta-analysis of seven observational studies including 319,993 participants found that women consuming the most pro-inflammatory diets (highest DII scores) had a 25% increased breast cancer risk compared to those with the least inflammatory diets, with particularly strong associations observed in postmenopausal women (15% increased risk) and hormone receptor-negative breast cancers (36% increased risk). The association varied by geography, showing dramatically elevated risk in Asian populations (130% increase) and more modest effects in European populations (26% increase), while case-control studies showed stronger associations (68% increase) than cohort studies. These findings reinforce that dietary patterns promoting chronic systemic inflammation—typically characterized by high intake of refined carbohydrates, red/processed meats, and trans fats with low intake of fruits, vegetables, and omega-3 fatty acids—contribute meaningfully to breast cancer risk, supporting dietary interventions focused on anti-inflammatory foods as a practical prevention strategy.
2019
Sci Rep
A case-control study of 1,050 breast cancer cases and 1,229 controls in which inflammatory markers (C-reactive protein and interleukin-6) were measured in 322 randomly selected case-control pairs examined whether dietary magnesium intake affects breast cancer risk directly and indirectly through inflammation. Higher magnesium intake was associated with 20% lower breast cancer risk (adjusted OR = 0.80; 95% CI: 0.65-0.99), while elevated CRP levels were associated with 43% increased risk (adjusted OR = 1.43; 95% CI: 1.02-2.01), though IL-6 showed no association with breast cancer. Path analysis revealed that dietary magnesium intake reduces breast cancer risk through two pathways: a direct protective effect and an indirect effect by lowering CRP levels, an inflammatory marker. These findings suggest that magnesium’s protective role against breast cancer operates both through anti-inflammatory mechanisms (by reducing systemic inflammation as measured by CRP) and through other direct biological pathways, highlighting the potential importance of adequate dietary magnesium intake for breast cancer prevention and the role of chronic inflammation in breast cancer development.
2019
Sci Rep
A Spanish case-control study of 973 breast cancer patients matched with controls found that the relationship between caloric intake and breast cancer risk varied dramatically by menopausal status: premenopausal women consuming 20% or more below their predicted caloric needs had a 64% reduced risk, while postmenopausal women consuming 40% or more above predicted needs had a 181% increased risk. For every 20% increase in relative caloric intake (observed versus predicted based on individual metabolism and activity), hormone receptor-positive and HER2-positive breast cancer risk increased by 13%, with triple-negative tumors showing a 7% increase per 20% caloric excess. These findings suggest that maintaining appropriate caloric intake matched to individual energy needs—and potentially moderate caloric restriction combined with regular physical activity—could be an effective breast cancer prevention strategy, particularly important given the different effects observed in pre- versus postmenopausal women.
2019
Eur J Clinic Nutr
A meta-analysis of 23 prospective studies including 41,516 breast cancer cases and 1,171,048 individuals found that higher folate intake was associated with reduced risk of ER-/PR- breast cancer (RR = 0.82; 95% CI: 0.68-0.97), with each 100 μg/day increment decreasing risk by 6% for ER- and 10% for ER-/PR- subtypes. Additionally, high folate intake showed protective effects in premenopausal women (RR = 0.94) and individuals with moderate-to-high alcohol consumption (RR = 0.82), suggesting folate may be particularly beneficial for hormone receptor-negative breast cancers and specific high-risk populations.
2019
Environ Int
Advanced glycation end products (AGEs), formed during the processing of foods at high temperatures, act as endocrine disruptors and are linked to various health risks. These compounds accumulate in the body over time, promoting oxidative stress, aging, diabetes, and other degenerative diseases. Processed foods, often convenient and inexpensive, are significant sources of AGEs, contributing to hormonal disruption and potential long-term health effects. Choosing minimally processed, whole foods can help reduce exposure to these harmful compounds and support overall hormonal balance, reinforcing the importance of food quality in maintaining long-term health and well-being.
2019
Breast Cancer Res Treat
A case-control study within the MCC-Spain cohort examined 1,389 invasive breast cancer cases and 1,712 controls aged 20-85 years to investigate domain-specific associations between physical activity and breast cancer risk by menopausal status and molecular subtype. The study found unexpected results: occupational physical activity (OPA) intensity was associated with higher breast cancer risk, particularly for premenopausal women (OR = 1.89 for active/very active vs. sedentary jobs) and ER+/PR+, HER2- tumors (OR = 1.80), while sedentary time ≥6 hours/day increased postmenopausal breast cancer risk by 69%; conversely, moderate-to-high intensity household and recreational physical activity above 1,000 MET·min/week reduced breast cancer risk by 14-33% in both pre- and postmenopausal women. These findings reveal important distinctions between types of physical activity: while leisure-time and household physical activity provide protective benefits against breast cancer, occupational physical activity paradoxically showed positive associations with breast cancer risk—particularly for hormone receptor-positive tumors—which may reflect different biological mechanisms, exposure patterns, or confounding factors associated with Occupation. The study highlights that sitting time is an independent breast cancer risk factor regardless of other physical activity, and the surprising positive association between occupational physical activity and ER+/PR+ breast cancer warrants further investigation to understand underlying mechanisms.
2018
Breast Cancer Res Treat
A study of 27,153 postmenopausal women in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial created an estrogen-related lifestyle score (ERLS) combining four factors: estrogenic diet, alcohol intake, body mass index (BMI), and physical activity, with scores ranging from 0-6 and higher scores representing lower estrogenic lifestyle patterns. Women with ERLS scores of 4 or ≥5 had 23% and 34% lower breast cancer risk, respectively, compared to those with scores ≤2, with similar protective effects observed for invasive cases and estrogen receptor-positive subtypes. The findings indicate that adopting multiple low-estrogen lifestyle behaviors together—including a low estrogenic diet, minimal alcohol consumption, healthy body weight, and high physical activity—has a combined protective effect against postmenopausal breast cancer that is stronger than any single factor alone. The researchers suggest this combined effect likely works by influencing estrogen metabolism, highlighting the importance of addressing multiple lifestyle factors simultaneously for breast cancer prevention in postmenopausal women.
Dietary Inflammatory Potential Score and Risk of Breast Cancer: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.
2018
Clinic Breast Cancer
A systematic review and meta-analysis of 9 studies including 296,102 participants found that higher dietary inflammatory potential was associated with a 14% increased breast cancer risk overall, though the association varied by study design with case-control studies showing stronger effects (63% increased risk, not statistically significant) than cohort studies (4% increased risk, not significant). The pooled analysis across all study types showed a significant positive association between pro-inflammatory diets and breast cancer, suggesting that dietary modifications to reduce inflammatory potential could meaningfully reduce breast cancer risk. These findings reinforce that chronic low-grade inflammation driven by diet—characterized by high intake of refined carbohydrates, red and processed meats, and trans fats with low consumption of anti-inflammatory foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and omega-3 fatty acids—contributes to breast carcinogenesis, supporting dietary pattern interventions focused on anti-inflammatory foods as an accessible and modifiable prevention strategy for women.
2018
Food Chem Tox
A systematic review of 25 studies examining phthalates (plastic chemicals) and breast cancer found that while laboratory studies show certain phthalates can activate estrogen receptors and promote cancer cell growth, epidemiological studies in humans have produced mixed and inconclusive results. The main source of phthalate exposure is through diet—particularly from food and beverages in plastic packaging—but current human studies have significant limitations in how they measure exposure and account for other risk factors. The review calls for better-designed future studies that use hair samples instead of urine for more accurate long-term exposure assessment, include dietary factors and genetic markers as confounders, and investigate phthalates’ effects beyond just estrogen-driven cancers to include all breast cancer subtypes.
2018
Eur J Obstet Gynecol Repod Biol
A hospital-based case-control study of 134 breast cancer cases and 267 controls in Tehran, Iran used a 168-item food frequency questionnaire and factor analysis to identify two major dietary patterns and assess their association with breast cancer risk. The “healthy” pattern (high in fruits, vegetables, seeds, legumes, fish, whole grains, and liquid/olive oils, with low salt) showed no significant association with breast cancer (OR: 0.83), while the “unhealthy” pattern (high in sweets, soft drinks, mayonnaise, solid oils, processed meat, fried/boiled potatoes, and salt) was associated with significantly increased breast cancer risk in the highest versus lowest quartile (OR: 2.21; 95% CI: 1.04-4.69). When stratified by menopausal status, the unhealthy dietary pattern showed a particularly strong association with breast cancer risk among postmenopausal women (OR: 3.56; 95% CI: 1.16-10.95), but not premenopausal women. These findings suggest that overall dietary patterns—rather than individual nutrients or foods—may be important determinants of breast cancer risk, with an unhealthy Western-style diet pattern characterized by processed foods, added sugars, unhealthy fats, and high salt intake potentially more than doubling breast cancer risk, especially in postmenopausal Iranian women.
2018
Int J Cancer
A population-based case-control study in Spain (2008-2013) including 621 prostate cancer cases, 1,205 breast cancer cases, and 2,193 controls who never worked night shifts examined whether meal timing is associated with cancer risk while accounting for lifestyle factors and chronotype (morning vs. evening preference). Participants who waited two or more hours between supper and sleep had a 20% reduced risk of breast and prostate cancer combined (OR = 0.80; 95% CI: 0.67-0.96) compared to those sleeping immediately after eating, with individual reductions of 26% for prostate cancer and 16% for breast cancer; similarly, eating supper before 9 pm versus after 10 pm showed protective effects, with stronger associations among those adhering to cancer prevention recommendations (OR = 0.65) and morning chronotypes (OR = 0.66). These findings suggest that adhering to diurnal eating patterns—particularly maintaining a long interval between the last meal and sleep—is associated with lower breast and prostate cancer risk, independent of diet quality and other lifestyle factors. The study highlights the emerging importance of meal timing and circadian rhythm alignment in cancer prevention, indicating that when we eat may be as important as what we eat, and suggesting that late-night eating close to bedtime may disrupt metabolic and hormonal processes that influence cancer development.
2018
Nutr Cancer
A case-control study of 136 breast cancer patients and 272 controls in Iran found that women consuming the most pro-inflammatory diets (highest quartile of DII scores) had a 164% increased breast cancer risk compared to those with the least inflammatory diets, with the association particularly striking among premenopausal women who showed a 451% increased risk. No association was detected in postmenopausal women, contrasting with findings from other studies that have typically shown stronger effects in postmenopausal populations. These findings suggest that pro-inflammatory dietary patterns may be especially harmful during premenopausal years when breast tissue is more metabolically active and hormone-responsive, highlighting the potential importance of anti-inflammatory dietary interventions—emphasizing whole grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, and fish while limiting processed foods, red meat, and refined carbohydrates—as a targeted prevention strategy for younger women at risk of breast cancer.
2018
Maturitas
A Spanish population-based case-control study of 1,006 breast cancer cases and 1,370 controls found that high total meat intake was associated with a 39% increased breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women, with processed/cured meat showing a 47% increased risk overall and a striking 152% increased risk specifically for triple-negative breast cancers. Cooking methods and doneness preferences significantly modified risk: well-done red meat was associated with 62% increased risk and stewed red meat with 49% increased risk (particularly for hormone receptor-positive tumors), while pan-fried or breaded white meat showed 38% increased overall risk and 78% increased risk in premenopausal women. These findings suggest that breast cancer risk could be reduced not only by limiting meat consumption—especially processed meats—but also by modifying cooking practices to avoid well-done or high-temperature cooking methods that generate carcinogenic compounds like heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
2024
Mol Nutr Food Res
A case-control study of 122 breast cancer patients and 56 healthy women in Southern Spain found that despite higher adherence to the Mediterranean diet, women with breast cancer had elevated body mass index (BMI), higher metabolic syndrome markers (glucose, cholesterol), and distinct gut microbiota alterations compared to controls. The most significant microbiota difference was a higher Bacillota/Bacteroidota ratio in breast cancer patients, a characteristic typically associated with metabolic dysfunction. The paradoxical finding—better diet quality alongside metabolic abnormalities—suggests that lifestyle changes around diagnosis or the influence of BMI may have masked the typical metabolic benefits of Mediterranean diet adherence, highlighting the complex interplay between diet, metabolism, gut microbiota, and breast cancer risk.
2022
BMC Med
A large UK study of 472,377 people followed for over 11 years found that vegetarians had 14% lower overall cancer risk compared to regular meat-eaters, with similar reductions seen in low meat-eaters (2% lower) and fish-eaters (10% lower). Vegetarian postmenopausal women had 18% lower breast cancer risk, though this benefit appeared to be largely explained by vegetarians having lower body weight, while men who ate fish or followed vegetarian diets had 20-31% lower prostate cancer risk. Low meat consumption was associated with 9% lower colorectal cancer risk, particularly in men, supporting previous evidence that meat intake increases cancer risk, though the study couldn’t definitively determine whether the observed benefits reflect direct dietary effects or other lifestyle factors associated with these eating patterns.
2022
PLOS Med
A large French study following nearly 103,000 adults for nearly 8 years found that people who consumed higher amounts of artificial sweeteners—particularly aspartame and acesulfame-K found in diet sodas and many processed foods—had a 13-15% increased risk of cancer overall, with specific increases in breast cancer and obesity-related cancers. The research, which carefully tracked detailed dietary records and controlled for multiple lifestyle factors, showed aspartame was associated with a 22% higher breast cancer risk among higher consumers compared to non-consumers. While the study has some limitations including potential confounding factors, these findings add to growing concerns about artificial sweetener safety and support the need for regulatory agencies to re-evaluate the safety of these widely used food additives found in thousands of products worldwide.
2020
Reprod Toxicol
This study indicates that 4-methylimidazole (4-MI), a byproduct found in caramel-colored foods and beverages, may pose reproductive and developmental risks. Research on rats showed that 4-MI exposure led to reproductive delays, decreased sperm health, and abnormal tissue development in the prostate, testis, and reproductive organs at higher doses. Concerns are growing as 4-MI is prevalent in foods like soda and barbecue sauces, widely consumed by all age groups. With no established safe exposure level, findings highlight the importance of monitoring caramel color additives and considering potential risks for human health, especially regarding reproductive well-being.