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2025
Sci Total Environ
This review examines the relationship between DEHP (a common plastic additive) and cancer development, noting that while epidemiological studies suggest a link between DEHP exposure and increased cancer risk, the specific mechanisms need further clarification. The research shows that DEHP influences multiple aspects of cancer biology, including cell growth, spread, and drug resistance, through various molecular pathways involving hormone receptors, inflammation, and genetic modifications. DEHP’s carcinogenic effects operate through complex mechanisms including PI3K/AKT signaling, estrogen receptor activation, and oxidative stress. Understanding these molecular pathways could help develop targeted strategies to prevent and treat cancers associated with DEHP exposure.
2025
J Occup Environ Med
A French case-control study of 1,230 breast cancer patients and 1,315 controls examined occupational exposure to 49 common workplace chemicals and found elevated breast cancer risk associated with 12 agents. Women with the highest cumulative exposure showed increased risk ranging from 33% to 139% for chemicals including synthetic and natural fibers, plastics, organic dyes, nitrogen oxides, anesthetic gases, and various industrial compounds. The associations were generally stronger in premenopausal women compared to postmenopausal women. These findings suggest certain occupational exposures may play a role in breast cancer development, though larger studies with more detailed exposure assessments are needed to confirm these results.
2025
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf
This study analyzed six xenoestrogens (hormone-disrupting chemicals including phthalates, BPA, and alkylphenols) in atmospheric particles at a university campus in China from 2021 to 2023. BPA was the most prevalent xenoestrogen detected, with concentrations of these chemicals being significantly higher in winter than summer, and the overall cancer and non-cancer health risks were below threshold limits for the general population. However, infants and young children showed significantly higher risk values compared to other age groups, indicating they face greater health risks from atmospheric exposure to these endocrine disruptors. The research provides important data for developing policies to reduce health risks from airborne xenoestrogen exposure, particularly for vulnerable populations like children.
2022
Chemosphere
Researchers measured 41 endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in women living in the Greater Manila Area, Philippines, comparing those with and without breast cancer. They found that certain perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) were significantly associated with breast cancer, with some chemicals showing dramatically increased risk: PFDoA was associated with a 1,263% increased risk, PFDA with an 826% increased risk, and PFHxA with a 166% increased risk. Long-chain PFAS levels were higher in women from heavily industrialized areas compared to the National Capital Region. This study provides the first baseline data on EDC exposure levels in Filipino women, filling a critical gap in knowledge about chemical exposures in Southeast Asian populations and suggesting that industrial pollution may be contributing to elevated PFAS levels and breast cancer risk.
2018
Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev
This study examined how exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) during puberty affects breast tissue development in 200 Chilean girls by measuring urinary concentrations of phenols and phthalates at two stages of breast development and assessing breast density. The researchers found that certain phthalate metabolites were associated with increased breast density measures – specifically, higher levels of monocarboxyisooctyl phthalate were linked to 7% higher percent dense breast tissue, and monoethyl phthalate was associated with increased fibroglandular volume. Bisphenol A showed a U-shaped relationship with fibroglandular volume, where girls with middle-level exposures had at least 10% lower fibroglandular volume compared to those with low or high exposures. The findings suggest that developing breast tissue is vulnerable to certain EDCs during childhood and adolescence, which may have implications for future breast cancer risk since breast density is a known risk factor.
2025
Sci Totl Environ
This study investigated the effects of three common plastic additives (DEHP, BPA, and benzotriazoles) on Atlantic cod liver tissue using precision-cut liver slices exposed to various concentrations of these chemicals individually and in mixtures. The researchers found that BPA and chemical mixtures caused estrogenic effects, significantly increasing vitellogenin (a female egg protein) production and related gene expression in male juvenile cod. The study also observed changes in liver metabolism genes, with mixture exposures showing potentially different effects than individual chemical exposures. The results suggest these plastic additives can disrupt hormone systems in fish, with BPA being the primary driver of estrogenic effects, though the interaction effects between chemicals require further investigation.
2025
Environ Pollut
This study examined the combined toxic effects of nanoplastic particles (NPs) and DEHP plasticizer on mouse mammary epithelial cells, finding that co-exposure caused severe cell death (pyroptosis), inflammation, and oxidative stress. The researchers discovered that the combination damaged mitochondria and increased endoplasmic reticulum stress, leading to disrupted cellular energy production and membrane integrity. Notably, co-exposure enhanced communication between cellular organelles (ER-mitochondria crosstalk), involving increased calcium levels and expanded contact areas between these structures. The findings reveal new molecular mechanisms by which plastic particles and plasticizers can work together to damage mammary gland tissue, providing insights into potential breast health risks from environmental plastic pollution.
2025
Int J Environ Sci
This study investigated how DEHP (a common plastic additive) affects triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), the most aggressive form of breast cancer. The researchers found that prolonged DEHP exposure enhanced cancer cell migration and invasion both in laboratory cultures and in animal models by activating a specific protein pathway involving MSI2, which promotes cancer spread and stem cell-like properties. DEHP exposure also reduced levels of a protective microRNA (miR-155-5p), while increasing MSI2 expression, suggesting these molecules work in opposition to each other. The findings identify MSI2 as a potential therapeutic target and prognostic marker for TNBC patients, providing new insights into how plastic additives may contribute to cancer metastasis.
2025
J Hazard Mater
This study investigated whether DEHCH, a newly developed alternative plasticizer, has safer endocrine-disrupting effects compared to conventional phthalates and other alternative plasticizers using computer modeling, cell studies, and zebrafish testing. The researchers found that DEHCH showed lower binding affinity to hormone receptors and did not affect hormone-related gene expression or neurosteroid levels in zebrafish, unlike the other tested plasticizers. In contrast, conventional phthalates (DEHP, DINP) and previously proposed alternatives (DINCH, DEHTP) caused hyperactivity in zebrafish and altered hormone-related gene expression and neurosteroid concentrations. The results suggest that DEHCH may be a safer alternative to both conventional phthalates and previously proposed substitutes in terms of endocrine disruption and neurological effects.
2025
J Hazard Mater
This study used advanced computer modeling to assess the combined reproductive health risks of phthalates (PAEs) and organophosphates (OPEs) found in atmospheric particles, focusing on their ability to disrupt hormone receptors. The researchers found that the mixed toxicity of these compounds was lower than expected from individual effects, suggesting they may interfere with each other’s toxic actions through antagonistic effects. Using network analysis and molecular modeling, they identified 590 potential targets and 50 core targets (including hormone receptors) affected by these pollutants, with DEHP, TPHP, and MEHP being key disruptors of hormone signaling pathways. The study also identified two previously overlooked targets (AKT1 and HSP90AA1) that may be important for reproductive toxicity, providing new insights into how these atmospheric pollutants may affect human reproductive health.
2025
Int J Hyg Environ Health
New research highlights the link between endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and earlier breast development in girls. A systematic review of 68 studies found that 10 out of 14 high-quality studies linked prenatal and postnatal exposure to EDCs like organohalogenated compounds and phthalates to earlier thelarche. With thelarche now occurring nearly three months earlier per decade, these findings raise serious concerns about long-term health risks, including breast cancer. Reducing exposure to harmful chemicals in everyday products is crucial to protecting hormonal health and preventing early puberty.
2024
J Hazard Mater
A study analyzing 162 non-alcoholic beverages found that 63 endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) were present in 144 products, with concentrations highest in metal-canned beverages and significantly lower or absent in glass, plastic, and carton packaging. Bisphenol A (BPA) levels were notably elevated in canned drinks compared to identical products from the same manufacturers packaged in glass or plastic, and researchers identified two previously unknown BPA structural isomers in beverages for the first time. The calculated daily BPA exposure from average beverage consumption (364 mL/day) exceeded the European Food Safety Authority’s revised safety guideline by up to 2,000-fold, suggesting that regular consumption of canned non-alcoholic beverages—particularly by young children—poses a potential health hazard due to EDC exposure from packaging materials.
2024
Heliyon
A mouse study found that ginger volatile oil (GVO) reduced triple-negative breast cancer tumor growth in animals exposed to bisphenol A (BPA), a common plastic chemical known to promote cancer, with the effect linked to restoration of healthy gut bacteria. BPA exposure disrupted the gut microbiome by reducing bacterial diversity and beneficial bacteria like Lactobacillus, but treatment with ginger oil reversed these changes and increased the ratio of beneficial bacteria while decreasing harmful bacteria. The findings suggest that ginger compounds may counteract BPA’s cancer-promoting effects through their impact on the gut microbiome, offering a potential dietary strategy to mitigate harm from plastic chemical exposure, though human studies are needed to confirm these results.
2024
PNAS
This study examined the health impacts of three major plastic-associated chemicals—BPA, DEHP, and PBDEs—across 38 countries representing one-third of the global population. The researchers found that in 2015, these chemicals were linked to approximately 5.4 million cases of heart disease, 346,000 strokes, 164,000 deaths among older adults, and 11.7 million lost IQ points in children due to prenatal exposure. The total economic cost of these health impacts was estimated at $1.5 trillion. The study suggests that if exposure levels had been reduced earlier, hundreds of thousands of deaths and millions of IQ points could have been prevented.
2024
Environ Int
A study in mice found that exposure to DEHP—a common chemical used to make plastics flexible—disrupts the gut-mammary connection, causing changes in gut bacteria, intestinal inflammation, and direct damage to mammary (breast) tissue that could impair milk production. DEHP altered gut microbiome composition (increasing some bacteria while decreasing others), changed blood metabolite levels, and its breakdown product (MEHP) triggered cell death in mammary tissue through multiple pathways. These findings raise concerns about DEHP exposure from plastics affecting both human breast health and dairy production in livestock, while identifying potential therapeutic targets to counteract the chemical’s harmful effects on the gut-breast axis.
2024
BMC Pub Health
This study used NHANES 2011–2018 data (n = 6,147) to evaluate the association between DEHP exposure and cancer risk. After adjusting for confounders, DEHP and its metabolites were significantly associated with increased risk of overall cancer prevalence, especially female reproductive system cancers (OR > 1.0, p < 0.05).
2024
Environ Health Perspect
A mouse study examining DNA methylation changes from lead and DEHP (phthalate) exposure during pregnancy and early development found that the brain (cerebral cortex) showed the most epigenetic changes (66% for lead, 57% for DEHP), with alterations concentrated in gene regulatory regions that control gene expression. The research identified imprinted genes—particularly Gnas and Grb10—as targets of both chemical exposures across multiple tissues, with some DNA methylation signatures in blood matching those in target organs like liver and brain, suggesting blood tests could potentially detect toxic exposures affecting other organs. Notably, lead exposure caused consistent hypermethylation of the Grb10 gene’s control region in both blood and liver of male offspring, providing preliminary evidence that epigenetic changes in easily accessible blood samples might serve as biomarkers for chemical exposures affecting critical organs like the brain. These findings are significant for breast cancer prevention because early-life exposures to lead and phthalates can alter epigenetic programming in ways that may increase disease risk decades later, and identifying blood-based biomarkers could enable early detection of harmful exposures during vulnerable developmental windows.
2024
Environ Res
Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs)—including bisphenol A, phthalates, parabens, pesticides, and heavy metals commonly found in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and packaging—are widespread environmental pollutants that interfere with the body’s hormone system. Research shows EDCs have harmful effects on women’s reproductive health, contributing to conditions such as endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome, uterine fibroids, premature ovarian failure, menstrual irregularities, and infertility. This review emphasizes the need for healthcare professionals to consider environmental exposures when evaluating patients, highlights potential mechanisms by which EDCs affect female reproduction, and discusses how nutritional interventions and stricter environmental regulations could help reduce EDC-related health risks. Understanding the link between EDCs and women’s health is crucial for developing protective strategies, informing treatment approaches, and shaping public policies to safeguard reproductive and overall well-being. The study seeks to advise that couples attempting to conceive should avoid endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) such as BPA, pesticides, and phthalates. Following this advice is found to be crucial during the prenatal and periconceptional periods, where fetal development and growth are critical in this window.
2024
Environ Int
A study of 1,031 pregnant women from the socioeconomically diverse CANDLE cohort in the urban South found that ultra-processed foods constituted 38.6% of participants’ diets on average, with each 10% higher dietary proportion of ultra-processed foods associated with 13.1% higher urinary concentrations of DEHP phthalate metabolites, while specific foods like hamburgers, French fries, soda, and cake showed 6-10.5% higher DEHP per standard deviation increase in consumption. Causal mediation analyses revealed that lower income and education levels were associated with 1.9% and 1.4% higher DEHP exposure respectively, mediated through increased ultra-processed food consumption, indicating that ultra-processed foods contribute to socioeconomic disparities in phthalate exposure during pregnancy. The findings demonstrate that consuming ultra-processed foods increases exposure to endocrine-disrupting phthalates from food contact materials, and because socioeconomic barriers can prevent dietary modifications, policies to reduce phthalates in food packaging and processing are needed rather than relying solely on individual dietary recommendations to reduce prenatal phthalate exposures.
2023
Environ Sci Technol
This review investigates the migration of bisphenols and alternative color developers from thermal labels on cling-wrapped fresh food, identifying them as significant dietary sources of these compounds. While no BPA was found in packaging, high concentrations of bisphenol S (BPS) and other alternatives were detected, particularly in thermal labels. Migration studies revealed that BPS and related compounds leach into food, especially fish, raising potential health concerns. These findings highlight the need for further risk assessments regarding these alternative chemicals in food packaging due to past findings about BPA being an endocrine disruptor. This will help mitigate exposure risks and ensure consumer safety.
2023
Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf
A systematic review of phthalate contamination in food identified 19 phthalates across multiple food categories, with 57 measurements exceeding legal limits and DEHP showing the highest incidence; risk assessment revealed high probability of exceeding tolerable daily intake for DEHP and DBP in fish, oils/fats, cereals, and dairy for both children and adults, with fats/oils being the most critical category. Migration from food contact materials is positively correlated with temperature, contact time, fat content, and acidity, with contamination occurring throughout the production chain. The widespread contamination exceeding safe exposure limits—particularly for vulnerable populations including children—highlights the urgent need for stricter regulation of phthalates in food packaging and production materials.
2023
Environ Sci Technol
The following study discusses a strategic framework to improve how chemicals are managed in North America. The Essential-Use Approach is a policy that prioritizes restricting the use of chemicals based on necessity and safety. It proposes three guiding questions: Is the chemical essential to the product’s function? Is it the safest option? Is it necessary for health and safety? They also prioritize speed of assesments so that chemicals can be quickly phased out if evidence suggests danger to human health. This study is a call for change and aims to become a tool to simplify decision-making for regulating organizations, help businesses avoid liability related to harmful chemicals, and ultimately improve public health by ensuring only the safest substances are used in consumer products.
2022
Environ Sci Pollut Res
The following study explores the presence of endocrine disruptors such as phthalates (specifically mono-2-ethyl phthalate and mono-n-butyl phthalate), bisphenol A (BPA), and 1-hydroxypyrene in the urine samples of marginalized Indigenous populations. The study found that 100% of the women sampled showed exposure to these harmful chemicals, with higher concentrations than observed in similar studies from other communities. This increased exposure is linked to environmental and cultural factors, such as the common use of plastic containers and practices such as burning garbage. The women sampled were found to have especially high levels of mono-2-ethyl phthalate, which suggests significant exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate. These findings highlight the vulnerability of indigenous communities to pollution due to a lack of awareness, limited healthcare access, and inadequate regulatory measures.
2022
Sci Rep
A study of drinking water found widespread contamination with phthalates (plastic chemicals) and bisphenol-A, with DEHP—the most common phthalate detected—exceeding safety limits in concentrations up to 8,351 µg/L in winter and 410 µg/L in summer, posing potential health risks to consumers. The research revealed significant seasonal variations with higher contamination in winter than summer, and health risk assessment showed that DEHP exposure from drinking water alone exceeded safe levels (hazard quotient >1), raising concerns about hormone disruption and potential breast cancer risk. These findings highlight an urgent need for water treatment plants to implement better technologies to remove these endocrine-disrupting chemicals and ensure safe drinking water, as current contamination levels may threaten both human and environmental health.
2022
Food Chem
A study analyzing 27 vegetable oils using advanced two-dimensional gas chromatography found phthalates—endocrine-disrupting chemicals used as plasticizers that have been linked to cancer—in vegetable oil products, though specific concentration ranges and detection frequencies were not provided in the abstract. The researchers developed a simple, direct analytical method requiring only dilution with solvent (no complex sample preparation) that achieved good repeatability, low detection limits (0.06-2.10 mg/kg), and high accuracy (-9.2% to 10.4%), making it suitable for routine monitoring of phthalate contamination in edible oils. These findings raise concerns about dietary phthalate exposure through cooking oils—a staple food ingredient consumed daily by billions—particularly since phthalates can migrate into oils from plastic packaging, processing equipment, or storage containers, and given their known endocrine-disrupting properties and associations with hormone-related cancers including breast cancer, highlighting the need for stricter regulations on phthalate use in food contact materials and routine monitoring of edible oils for these contaminants.
2022
Biomed Pharmacother
A review of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs)—ubiquitous substances found in cosmetics, plastic food packaging, and medicines that enter the body through skin, digestive, or respiratory routes—examined their toxic effects even at microgram doses on the female reproductive system and genetic mechanisms. EDCs disrupt endocrine functions by binding to steroid hormone receptors, interfering with hormone synthesis and secretion, and modulating epigenetic processes that can lead to gene expression disturbances, contributing to neoplastic diseases, neurological disorders, circulatory problems, and reproductive dysfunction. Prenatal exposure can affect offspring development, with particular impacts on ovarian function leading to reduced fertility through disturbances in steroid receptor function, steroidogenesis, and gametogenesis. The review emphasizes that despite widespread exposure to these chemicals in everyday products, continued research is needed to fully understand their effects on the female reproductive system and potential transgenerational impacts mediated through epigenetic mechanisms.
2022
Chemosphere
A study analyzing 12 commercial bottled water brands found that all tested products contained 2-6 different phthalate chemicals at concentrations ranging from 6.3 to 112.2 ng/mL, with di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) showing the highest levels followed by DEHP, DiBP, DMP, DEP, and DiPP. Using an optimized solid-phase microextraction method combined with tandem mass spectrometry, researchers detected these endocrine-disrupting chemicals—which leach from plastic bottles into drinking water—at levels detectable with limits as low as 0.3-2.6 ng/mL. These findings raise significant public health concerns given that phthalates are recognized endocrine disruptors with estrogenic properties that have been linked to breast cancer and other hormone-related health effects, and that billions of people worldwide consume bottled water daily with cumulative lifetime exposures potentially reaching harmful levels, highlighting the urgent need for regulatory limits on phthalates in bottled water and increased adoption of alternative packaging materials that don’t leach endocrine-disrupting chemicals.
2022
Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr
This systematic review of 131 epidemiological studies evaluated the association between various endocrine-disrupting chemicals, including phthalates and hormonal exposures like contraceptive pills, and the risk of breast cancer. It found that several EDCs, particularly phthalates and oral contraceptive use, were consistently associated with increased breast cancer risk across multiple studies.
2022
Int J Environ Res Public Health
A recent study highlights the risk of Bisphenol A (BPA) exposure from bottled water, emphasizing how temperature can influence BPA leaching into the water. While BPA isn’t used in PET bottle manufacturing, contamination can occur due to recycled materials. Findings indicate that BPA levels in bottled water increase with temperature, even when not at the highest temperatures. BPA, a known endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC), is linked to reproductive health issues, developmental disorders, and even cancer.
2022
Molecules
A review of endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) in drinking water examines this emerging class of environmental contaminants—ranging from naturally occurring to synthetic compounds—that exist as complex mixtures at trace levels but can cause adverse health effects even at low concentrations. The review covers the perceived and actual health risks of EDC exposure through water ingestion (a major human exposure route), regulatory efforts to limit contamination, and analytical methods including advanced sample preparation, instrumentation, and bioassays for multiclass EDC identification and quantitation. Given that human exposure to EDCs via drinking water poses significant health concerns even at trace concentrations, the ability to detect and evaluate EDC contamination with high sensitivity and accuracy is critically important for protecting public health and informing regulatory policy.
2021
Endocrinology
A comprehensive review of bisphenol A (BPA) research spanning over 20 years—from the landmark 1997 study showing reproductive effects in male mouse offspring at 2 µg/kg/day through the CLARITY-BPA study designed to bridge regulatory and scientific disagreements—found that thousands of animal studies and over 100 epidemiological studies report adverse effects at low doses, with CLARITY-BPA showing effects at 2.5 µg/kg/day, leading independent experts to recommend dropping the lowest observed adverse effect level 20,000-fold from 50,000 to 2.5 µg/kg/day. Despite this overwhelming evidence, the FDA continues to assert BPA is safe by rejecting low-dose data as “not biologically plausible” based on four incorrect assumptions criticized by the Endocrine Society as violating basic principles of endocrinology: that dose responses must be monotonic, thresholds exist below which there are no effects, both sexes must respond similarly, and only traditional toxicological guideline studies are valid. The review highlights a fundamental divide between regulatory approaches and endocrine science, demonstrating that traditional toxicology methods are insufficient for evaluating endocrine-disrupting chemicals like BPA, which can cause non-monotonic dose responses, sex-specific effects, and low-dose effects that challenge conventional assumptions about chemical safety, yet regulatory agencies continue to ignore modern endocrinology principles in favor of outdated toxicological paradigms.
2019
Environ Res
This study investigated how DEHP (a common plastic additive) and its metabolite MEHP affect breast cancer-related markers in T-47D breast cancer cells exposed to various concentrations for 4 days. The researchers found that high-dose DEHP (10,000 nM) and low-dose MEHP (0.1 nM) significantly increased cell proliferation without causing cell death, and DEHP also increased progesterone receptor (PR) protein levels and nuclear accumulation. When cells were treated with a progesterone receptor blocker (Mifepristone), the increased cell growth was completely prevented and PR nuclear levels were partially reduced, indicating that DEHP promotes breast cancer cell proliferation through progesterone receptor activation. The findings suggest that DEHP exposure may increase breast cancer risk by activating progesterone signaling pathways, though the exact mechanisms and long-term consequences require further investigation.
2019
Environ Int
A systematic review of 342 peer-reviewed articles covering 202 unique chemicals used in consumer products analyzed exposure pathways, functional uses, product applications, exposure routes, and associated health risks, finding that phthalates, bisphenol-A, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers were the most frequently studied chemicals, with frequently reported uses including plasticizers, polymers/monomers, and flame retardants in food contact materials, personal care products, cosmetics, furniture, flooring, and electronics. The analysis revealed that publication volume on chemicals tends to surge following major regulatory changes or exposure incidents rather than before market introduction, indicating a reactive rather than proactive approach to chemical safety assessment. These findings highlight the critical gap between the increasingly diverse array of chemicals used in consumer products and our lagging understanding of their exposure pathways and human health risks, emphasizing the urgent need to develop capacity and mechanisms for identifying health risks prior to chemical releases rather than after exposure incidents or regulatory action, to enable preventive rather than reactive public health protection.
2019
Environ Pollut
This study investigated how three endocrine-disrupting chemicals (BPA, BBP, and DEHP) affect estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) activity under normal and low-oxygen (hypoxic) conditions in breast and endometrial cancer cells. The researchers found that BPA and BBP activated ERα at specific concentrations, while DEHP did not, but all three chemicals enhanced ERα-mediated gene activity and decreased ERα protein levels under hypoxic conditions. BPA and BBP also affected hypoxia-related factors, decreasing hypoxia-inducible factor-1 activity while increasing VEGF (a blood vessel growth factor) secretion in breast cancer cells, whereas DEHP had different effects. The findings suggest that these endocrine disruptors can alter ERα regulation under low-oxygen conditions, which may influence disease processes since hypoxia is common in tumors and other pathological states.
2018
Food Chem Tox
A systematic review of 25 studies examining phthalates (plastic chemicals) and breast cancer found that while laboratory studies show certain phthalates can activate estrogen receptors and promote cancer cell growth, epidemiological studies in humans have produced mixed and inconclusive results. The main source of phthalate exposure is through diet—particularly from food and beverages in plastic packaging—but current human studies have significant limitations in how they measure exposure and account for other risk factors. The review calls for better-designed future studies that use hair samples instead of urine for more accurate long-term exposure assessment, include dietary factors and genetic markers as confounders, and investigate phthalates’ effects beyond just estrogen-driven cancers to include all breast cancer subtypes.
2018
Oncol Rep
This study investigated whether exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalate metabolites affects breast cancer risk through epigenetic changes in the ADAM33 gene, which plays a role in cancer progression. The researchers conducted a case-control study with 44 breast cancer patients and 22 controls, analyzing ADAM33 gene methylation patterns in blood samples and measuring urinary concentrations of endocrine-disrupting chemicals. They found that certain phthalate metabolites (MEHHP, MECPP, MEOHP) were positively associated with increased methylation of the ADAM33 gene, which was linked to higher gene expression levels. Surprisingly, the study suggests these phthalate metabolites may have a protective effect against breast cancer by increasing ADAM33 methylation and expression, contrary to the typical expectation that endocrine disruptors increase cancer risk.
2018
PLOS One
This study investigated how phthalates affect the growth of normal breast cells (MCF-10A) when grown alongside breast fibroblasts derived from tissue near estrogen receptor (ER) positive and negative breast cancers. The researchers found that only fibroblasts from ER-positive breast cancer tissue significantly stimulated breast cell proliferation, and when these co-cultures were exposed to estrogen or three phthalates (BBP, DBP, DEHP), cell growth increased significantly along with markers of cell division and estrogen receptor expression. The effects of phthalates on normal breast cells were similar to those of estrogen and depended on estrogen receptor activity, suggesting that phthalates act through hormone-mediated pathways. The study concludes that phthalates should be considered potential endocrine disruptors with breast cancer risk implications, even at low concentrations, particularly in the presence of estrogen-responsive tissue.
2018
Tox Lett
This study investigated how butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), a common environmental contaminant linked to breast cancer, promotes cancer cell growth and identified the molecular mechanisms involved. The researchers found that BBP increased proliferation in both estrogen receptor-positive (MCF-7) and negative (MDA-MB-231) breast cancer cells by promoting cell cycle progression and upregulating growth-promoting proteins while downregulating tumor suppressor proteins. For the first time, the study revealed that BBP works through modulating microRNA-19a/b, which targets the tumor suppressor gene PTEN, leading to activation of the AKT signaling pathway that promotes cell growth. These findings provide new insights into how BBP contributes to breast cancer development at the molecular level and suggest potential targets for intervention.
2017
Sci Rep
An experimental study in mice using fluorescent polystyrene microplastics (5 μm and 20 μm diameter) found that microplastics accumulated in liver, kidney, and gut with tissue distribution and kinetics strongly dependent on particle size. Exposure induced disturbances in energy and lipid metabolism, oxidative stress, and altered blood biomarkers of neurotoxicity, as revealed through biochemical analyses and metabolomic profiling. This study provides new evidence for adverse health consequences of microplastic exposure in mammals, demonstrating tissue-specific accumulation patterns and systemic metabolic disruptions, though information about microplastic toxicity in mammals remains limited compared to marine organisms despite the ubiquitous environmental presence of these particles in oceans, rivers, soil, food, and even table salt.
2017
Molec Cell Endocrinol
This study examines the role of environmental estrogen-like endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EEDs) in breast cancer development. EEDs are synthetic compounds that mimic estrogen, and the ones being studied in this paper include polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), bisphenol A (BPA), and phthalates. The results of the study show that of the EEDs tested, only one type of PCB, PCB138, had a strong association with the formation of breast cancer, where as phthalates (and it metabolites) but and BPA showed no strong correlation. Additionaly, the researchers identify that these EEDs promote the proliferation of breast cancer cells, induce epigenetic changes that may increase susceptibility to cancer, as well as alter developmental pathways during critical windows of breast development.
2015
Carcinogenesis
This study explores the linkage between environmental chemical exposures and cellular resistance to cell death, a carcinogenic trait. The researchers in this study specifically investigate BPA, chlorothalonil, dibutyl phthalate, and more because of their disruptive effects that may be involved in these carcinogenic pathways. The researchers found that arsenic interferes with cellular signaling pathways and induces oxidative stress, leading to impaired apoptosis; dioxins bind to aryl hydrocarbon receptors (AHRs), which alters gene expression and disrupts normal cell death processes; BPA mimics the estrogen hormone, affecting hormonal balance and promoting cell survival pathways that inhibit cell death. By allowing cells to evade cell death, these environmental chemicals can promote the survival of cells with genetic mutations and therefore increase the risk of cancer development.
2015
Environ Health Perspect
This study investigates how low concentrations of Bisphenol A (BPA) affect DNA integrity and cell proliferation in breast cells, focusing on the involvement of the oncogene c-Myc. They found that exposure to low doses of BPA resulted in significant DNA damage in estrogen receptor-alpha (ERα)-negative mammary cells, meaning that BPA can promote cancer in ways independent of standard estrogen receptor pathways. Additionally, BPA exposure led to the upregulation of c-Myc, which is a gene known to regulate cell proliferation and death., and the study did observe enhanced proliferation of ERα-negative mammary cells upon BPA exposure. This suggests that BPA may promote cancer pathways through c-Myc activation. This was then confirmed when the researchers silenced c-Myc gene expression and found that oncogenic effects in the presence of BPA were decreased. Overall, these findings raise concerns about BPA’s potential role in breast cancer formation, even at low exposure levels.
2014
Aging Dis
The following review article described how exposure to EDCs during early development can lead to adverse health outcomes later in life through epigenetic mechanisms based on existing studies. The article emphasizes that exposure to EDCs during critical developmental periods such as in utero and early childhood, can have lasting effects on health since, during these periods, the body’s systems are particularly vulnerable to exposures. Additionally, the article finds a link between early-life exposure to EDCs and increased risk of various health issues later on in life, including metabolic disorders and cancers. The suspected mechanism by which these chemicals do this is thought to be mediated by epigenetic changes, which are changes to gene expression without altering the DNA. Therefore, the article emphasizes understanding how exposure during such sensitive periods in development can pose such drastic problems later on in life.
2014
Environ Health Perspect
This review of exposure biomarkers for chemicals potentially linked to breast cancer identified methods for 102 chemicals causing mammary tumors in rodents, finding biomarkers for nearly 75% of them, with human exposure biomarkers existing for 62 chemicals (45 measured in non-occupationally exposed populations) and the CDC tracking 23 of them. Among rodent mammary carcinogens with >50% population detection frequency were PAHs (98%), methyleugenol (98%), PFOA (>50%), chlordane (>50%), acrylamide (>50%), and benzene (>50%), indicating near-universal exposure to multiple mammary carcinogens, with several additional chemicals showing >50% detection of urinary metabolites including ethylene oxide, acrylonitrile, fenvalerate, and vinyl chloride (71-75%). The study found consistent carcinogenicity between humans and rodents for many chemicals, though limited data exists for direct effects in humans, and emphasizes the availability of biomonitoring tools and resources to advance breast cancer prevention efforts. The findings underscore that populations are ubiquitously exposed to multiple known mammary carcinogens simultaneously, highlighting the urgent need for biomonitoring programs to assess mixed exposures and inform prevention strategies targeting modifiable environmental risk factors for breast cancer.
2012
Environ Health Perspect
This study analyzed 213 everyday products, including cosmetics, cleaners, and personal care items, for endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and asthma-related compounds. Testing revealed 55 chemicals, with fragranced products and sunscreens containing the highest levels. Vinyl products were also found to contain significant amounts of bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), a known EDC. Many harmful chemicals were not listed on product labels, limiting consumer ability to avoid them. These results highlight the presence of potentially harmful chemicals in commonly used products, raising concerns about their widespread use in household and personal care items.
2024
Chemosphere
When tea is made using a polypropylene teabag, it could be releasing over 1 billion tiny plastic particles into every milliliter of your tea. A typical cup of tea is about 240 mL, so that could be nearly 300 billion particles per cup. An experimental study simulating tea preparation from three commercial teabags found substantial release of micro/nanoplastics (MNPLs), with teabags made of nylon-6, polypropylene, and cellulose releasing 8.18×10⁶ to 1.20×10⁹ nanoparticles per mL (particle sizes 136-244 nm), along with microfibers. In vitro exposure of three human intestinal cell lines (Caco-2, HT29, HT29-MTX) to 100 μg/mL of these nanoparticles for 24 hours revealed significant cell-type-specific uptake patterns: polypropylene nanoparticles were preferentially taken up by mucus-secreting HT29-MTX cells, cellulose nanoparticles by HT29 and HT29-MTX cells, and nylon-6 nanoparticles by Caco-2 cells. These findings highlight that everyday items like teabags represent a significant, previously underappreciated source of human MNPL exposure beyond environmental contamination, with billions of nanoparticles released per serving that are readily internalized by intestinal cells, underscoring the urgent need to investigate potential health effects of dietary plastic exposure from food packaging and preparation materials.
2020
Environ Health Perspect
This article focuses on microplastics (MP’s), their effect on marine life and routes of human exposure. MP human exposure usually occurs through inhalation or ingestion which comes from contaminated fish and environment. MP’s are concerning because they spread either as pellets/by products or through degradation and fragmentation of plastic products. When this occurs, and reaches water and marine life, they then become contaminated with this plastic and degrade further, and leave forever chemicals as well. Due to the complex and persistent nature of these chemicals, they remain in organ systems of humans for long periods of time. It is important to remember that in small amounts they may not cause many effects but as these chemicals accumulate, it can cause risk to reproductive and hormonal issues.
2020
Part Fibre Toxicol
This study investigated whether nanopolystyrene particles can cross the placental barrier and affect fetal tissues after being inhaled by the mother. The researchers exposed pregnant mice to nanopolystyrene particles with biomarkers (which they could use to detect their movement). After 24 hours, the nanopolystyrene was found in the mother’s organs such as the lungs, heart, and spleen, as well as the placenta and even in the fetus in organs including the liver, lungs, and brain. Furthermore, mothers exposed to the nanopolystyrene had lower fetal and placental sizes by 7 and 8% respectively. The researchers identified that the nanopolystyrene particles were transferred from the mother to the fetus through circulation of the particles to the placenta, and then from the placenta to the fetus. The study highlights critical concerns about ubiquitous plastic exposure and its potential impact on fetal development and the developmental origins of health and disease, particularly as microplastic and nanoplastic pollution becomes increasingly pervasive in indoor and outdoor environments.