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2025
Sci Total Environ
This review examines the relationship between DEHP (a common plastic additive) and cancer development, noting that while epidemiological studies suggest a link between DEHP exposure and increased cancer risk, the specific mechanisms need further clarification. The research shows that DEHP influences multiple aspects of cancer biology, including cell growth, spread, and drug resistance, through various molecular pathways involving hormone receptors, inflammation, and genetic modifications. DEHP’s carcinogenic effects operate through complex mechanisms including PI3K/AKT signaling, estrogen receptor activation, and oxidative stress. Understanding these molecular pathways could help develop targeted strategies to prevent and treat cancers associated with DEHP exposure.
2025
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf
This study analyzed six xenoestrogens (hormone-disrupting chemicals including phthalates, BPA, and alkylphenols) in atmospheric particles at a university campus in China from 2021 to 2023. BPA was the most prevalent xenoestrogen detected, with concentrations of these chemicals being significantly higher in winter than summer, and the overall cancer and non-cancer health risks were below threshold limits for the general population. However, infants and young children showed significantly higher risk values compared to other age groups, indicating they face greater health risks from atmospheric exposure to these endocrine disruptors. The research provides important data for developing policies to reduce health risks from airborne xenoestrogen exposure, particularly for vulnerable populations like children.
2024
Sci Total Environ
This large prospective cohort study investigated the association between DEHP exposure and breast neoplasms in 273,295 women from the UK Biobank, using modeled DEHP levels from environmental data and Cox regression analysis. Results showed that higher baseline and long-term DEHP exposure was positively associated with increased risk of malignant neoplasm, carcinoma in situ, and benign breast neoplasms, with suggestive higher risk in younger women and oral contraceptive users.
2022
Cancer Epiemiol
The first Indian case-control study examining phthalates (chemicals widely used in plastics, cosmetics, and food packaging) and breast cancer found that women with higher urinary levels of di-butyl phthalate (DBP) had 1.5 times increased breast cancer risk, while those with higher DEHP levels had nearly 3 times increased risk. Analysis of breast tumor tissue revealed mutations in several genes known to respond to phthalate exposure, affecting pathways involved in hormones, metabolism, and cancer development. These findings suggest that exposure to certain phthalates may increase breast cancer risk through genetic changes, though larger studies are needed to confirm these results and understand how early-life exposures might contribute to cancer development later in life.
2018
Environ Health
This longitudinal study examined how exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) affects the timing of menarche in Chilean girls by measuring 26 phenol and phthalate compounds in urine samples collected before breast development and during adolescence. The researchers found that different chemicals had varying effects depending on when exposure was measured: higher early exposure to DEHP was associated with later menarche, while early exposure to certain phenols and later exposure to some phthalates were linked to earlier menarche. The study also revealed that body weight influenced these effects, with overweight or obese girls showing earlier menarche when exposed to higher levels of certain chemicals like triclosan, while normal-weight girls did not show this association. These findings demonstrate that specific EDCs can disrupt normal sexual development in girls, with timing of exposure and body weight being important factors.
2025
Int J Environ Sci
This study investigated how DEHP (a common plastic additive) affects triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), the most aggressive form of breast cancer. The researchers found that prolonged DEHP exposure enhanced cancer cell migration and invasion both in laboratory cultures and in animal models by activating a specific protein pathway involving MSI2, which promotes cancer spread and stem cell-like properties. DEHP exposure also reduced levels of a protective microRNA (miR-155-5p), while increasing MSI2 expression, suggesting these molecules work in opposition to each other. The findings identify MSI2 as a potential therapeutic target and prognostic marker for TNBC patients, providing new insights into how plastic additives may contribute to cancer metastasis.
2025
Environ Pollut
This study examined the combined toxic effects of nanoplastic particles (NPs) and DEHP plasticizer on mouse mammary epithelial cells, finding that co-exposure caused severe cell death (pyroptosis), inflammation, and oxidative stress. The researchers discovered that the combination damaged mitochondria and increased endoplasmic reticulum stress, leading to disrupted cellular energy production and membrane integrity. Notably, co-exposure enhanced communication between cellular organelles (ER-mitochondria crosstalk), involving increased calcium levels and expanded contact areas between these structures. The findings reveal new molecular mechanisms by which plastic particles and plasticizers can work together to damage mammary gland tissue, providing insights into potential breast health risks from environmental plastic pollution.
2025
J Hazard Mater
This study investigated whether DEHCH, a newly developed alternative plasticizer, has safer endocrine-disrupting effects compared to conventional phthalates and other alternative plasticizers using computer modeling, cell studies, and zebrafish testing. The researchers found that DEHCH showed lower binding affinity to hormone receptors and did not affect hormone-related gene expression or neurosteroid levels in zebrafish, unlike the other tested plasticizers. In contrast, conventional phthalates (DEHP, DINP) and previously proposed alternatives (DINCH, DEHTP) caused hyperactivity in zebrafish and altered hormone-related gene expression and neurosteroid concentrations. The results suggest that DEHCH may be a safer alternative to both conventional phthalates and previously proposed substitutes in terms of endocrine disruption and neurological effects.
2025
Sci Totl Environ
This study investigated the effects of three common plastic additives (DEHP, BPA, and benzotriazoles) on Atlantic cod liver tissue using precision-cut liver slices exposed to various concentrations of these chemicals individually and in mixtures. The researchers found that BPA and chemical mixtures caused estrogenic effects, significantly increasing vitellogenin (a female egg protein) production and related gene expression in male juvenile cod. The study also observed changes in liver metabolism genes, with mixture exposures showing potentially different effects than individual chemical exposures. The results suggest these plastic additives can disrupt hormone systems in fish, with BPA being the primary driver of estrogenic effects, though the interaction effects between chemicals require further investigation.
2025
J Hazard Mater
This study used advanced computer modeling to assess the combined reproductive health risks of phthalates (PAEs) and organophosphates (OPEs) found in atmospheric particles, focusing on their ability to disrupt hormone receptors. The researchers found that the mixed toxicity of these compounds was lower than expected from individual effects, suggesting they may interfere with each other’s toxic actions through antagonistic effects. Using network analysis and molecular modeling, they identified 590 potential targets and 50 core targets (including hormone receptors) affected by these pollutants, with DEHP, TPHP, and MEHP being key disruptors of hormone signaling pathways. The study also identified two previously overlooked targets (AKT1 and HSP90AA1) that may be important for reproductive toxicity, providing new insights into how these atmospheric pollutants may affect human reproductive health.
2024
Environ Int
A study in mice found that exposure to DEHP—a common chemical used to make plastics flexible—disrupts the gut-mammary connection, causing changes in gut bacteria, intestinal inflammation, and direct damage to mammary (breast) tissue that could impair milk production. DEHP altered gut microbiome composition (increasing some bacteria while decreasing others), changed blood metabolite levels, and its breakdown product (MEHP) triggered cell death in mammary tissue through multiple pathways. These findings raise concerns about DEHP exposure from plastics affecting both human breast health and dairy production in livestock, while identifying potential therapeutic targets to counteract the chemical’s harmful effects on the gut-breast axis.
2024
BMC Pub Health
This study used NHANES 2011–2018 data (n = 6,147) to evaluate the association between DEHP exposure and cancer risk. After adjusting for confounders, DEHP and its metabolites were significantly associated with increased risk of overall cancer prevalence, especially female reproductive system cancers (OR > 1.0, p < 0.05).
2024
Environ Health Perspect
A mouse study examining DNA methylation changes from lead and DEHP (phthalate) exposure during pregnancy and early development found that the brain (cerebral cortex) showed the most epigenetic changes (66% for lead, 57% for DEHP), with alterations concentrated in gene regulatory regions that control gene expression. The research identified imprinted genes—particularly Gnas and Grb10—as targets of both chemical exposures across multiple tissues, with some DNA methylation signatures in blood matching those in target organs like liver and brain, suggesting blood tests could potentially detect toxic exposures affecting other organs. Notably, lead exposure caused consistent hypermethylation of the Grb10 gene’s control region in both blood and liver of male offspring, providing preliminary evidence that epigenetic changes in easily accessible blood samples might serve as biomarkers for chemical exposures affecting critical organs like the brain. These findings are significant for breast cancer prevention because early-life exposures to lead and phthalates can alter epigenetic programming in ways that may increase disease risk decades later, and identifying blood-based biomarkers could enable early detection of harmful exposures during vulnerable developmental windows.
2024
Environ Int
A study of 1,031 pregnant women from the socioeconomically diverse CANDLE cohort in the urban South found that ultra-processed foods constituted 38.6% of participants’ diets on average, with each 10% higher dietary proportion of ultra-processed foods associated with 13.1% higher urinary concentrations of DEHP phthalate metabolites, while specific foods like hamburgers, French fries, soda, and cake showed 6-10.5% higher DEHP per standard deviation increase in consumption. Causal mediation analyses revealed that lower income and education levels were associated with 1.9% and 1.4% higher DEHP exposure respectively, mediated through increased ultra-processed food consumption, indicating that ultra-processed foods contribute to socioeconomic disparities in phthalate exposure during pregnancy. The findings demonstrate that consuming ultra-processed foods increases exposure to endocrine-disrupting phthalates from food contact materials, and because socioeconomic barriers can prevent dietary modifications, policies to reduce phthalates in food packaging and processing are needed rather than relying solely on individual dietary recommendations to reduce prenatal phthalate exposures.
2024
PNAS
This study examined the health impacts of three major plastic-associated chemicals—BPA, DEHP, and PBDEs—across 38 countries representing one-third of the global population. The researchers found that in 2015, these chemicals were linked to approximately 5.4 million cases of heart disease, 346,000 strokes, 164,000 deaths among older adults, and 11.7 million lost IQ points in children due to prenatal exposure. The total economic cost of these health impacts was estimated at $1.5 trillion. The study suggests that if exposure levels had been reduced earlier, hundreds of thousands of deaths and millions of IQ points could have been prevented.
2023
Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf
A systematic review of phthalate contamination in food identified 19 phthalates across multiple food categories, with 57 measurements exceeding legal limits and DEHP showing the highest incidence; risk assessment revealed high probability of exceeding tolerable daily intake for DEHP and DBP in fish, oils/fats, cereals, and dairy for both children and adults, with fats/oils being the most critical category. Migration from food contact materials is positively correlated with temperature, contact time, fat content, and acidity, with contamination occurring throughout the production chain. The widespread contamination exceeding safe exposure limits—particularly for vulnerable populations including children—highlights the urgent need for stricter regulation of phthalates in food packaging and production materials.
2022
Biomedicines
This study investigates the effects of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), a common plasticizer, on female rats. It found that exposure to DEHP, even at realistic environmental doses, led to significant disruptions in the rats’ reproductive and thyroid systems. More specifically it found that even low exposure to DEHP over a period of 21 days resulted in a significant decrease in the levels of estrogen and progesterone, which correlated with damage to ovarian follicles. Additionally, the thyroid showed signs of damage, including alterations in hormone regulation. The data in this study suggests that DEHP can potentially lead reproductive issues and impaired ovarian and thyroid gland function.
2022
Sci Rep
A study of drinking water found widespread contamination with phthalates (plastic chemicals) and bisphenol-A, with DEHP—the most common phthalate detected—exceeding safety limits in concentrations up to 8,351 µg/L in winter and 410 µg/L in summer, posing potential health risks to consumers. The research revealed significant seasonal variations with higher contamination in winter than summer, and health risk assessment showed that DEHP exposure from drinking water alone exceeded safe levels (hazard quotient >1), raising concerns about hormone disruption and potential breast cancer risk. These findings highlight an urgent need for water treatment plants to implement better technologies to remove these endocrine-disrupting chemicals and ensure safe drinking water, as current contamination levels may threaten both human and environmental health.
2022
Chemosphere
A study analyzing 12 commercial bottled water brands found that all tested products contained 2-6 different phthalate chemicals at concentrations ranging from 6.3 to 112.2 ng/mL, with di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) showing the highest levels followed by DEHP, DiBP, DMP, DEP, and DiPP. Using an optimized solid-phase microextraction method combined with tandem mass spectrometry, researchers detected these endocrine-disrupting chemicals—which leach from plastic bottles into drinking water—at levels detectable with limits as low as 0.3-2.6 ng/mL. These findings raise significant public health concerns given that phthalates are recognized endocrine disruptors with estrogenic properties that have been linked to breast cancer and other hormone-related health effects, and that billions of people worldwide consume bottled water daily with cumulative lifetime exposures potentially reaching harmful levels, highlighting the urgent need for regulatory limits on phthalates in bottled water and increased adoption of alternative packaging materials that don’t leach endocrine-disrupting chemicals.
2019
Environ Res
This study investigated how DEHP (a common plastic additive) and its metabolite MEHP affect breast cancer-related markers in T-47D breast cancer cells exposed to various concentrations for 4 days. The researchers found that high-dose DEHP (10,000 nM) and low-dose MEHP (0.1 nM) significantly increased cell proliferation without causing cell death, and DEHP also increased progesterone receptor (PR) protein levels and nuclear accumulation. When cells were treated with a progesterone receptor blocker (Mifepristone), the increased cell growth was completely prevented and PR nuclear levels were partially reduced, indicating that DEHP promotes breast cancer cell proliferation through progesterone receptor activation. The findings suggest that DEHP exposure may increase breast cancer risk by activating progesterone signaling pathways, though the exact mechanisms and long-term consequences require further investigation.
2019
Environ Pollut
This study investigated how three endocrine-disrupting chemicals (BPA, BBP, and DEHP) affect estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) activity under normal and low-oxygen (hypoxic) conditions in breast and endometrial cancer cells. The researchers found that BPA and BBP activated ERα at specific concentrations, while DEHP did not, but all three chemicals enhanced ERα-mediated gene activity and decreased ERα protein levels under hypoxic conditions. BPA and BBP also affected hypoxia-related factors, decreasing hypoxia-inducible factor-1 activity while increasing VEGF (a blood vessel growth factor) secretion in breast cancer cells, whereas DEHP had different effects. The findings suggest that these endocrine disruptors can alter ERα regulation under low-oxygen conditions, which may influence disease processes since hypoxia is common in tumors and other pathological states.
2018
PLOS One
This study investigated how phthalates affect the growth of normal breast cells (MCF-10A) when grown alongside breast fibroblasts derived from tissue near estrogen receptor (ER) positive and negative breast cancers. The researchers found that only fibroblasts from ER-positive breast cancer tissue significantly stimulated breast cell proliferation, and when these co-cultures were exposed to estrogen or three phthalates (BBP, DBP, DEHP), cell growth increased significantly along with markers of cell division and estrogen receptor expression. The effects of phthalates on normal breast cells were similar to those of estrogen and depended on estrogen receptor activity, suggesting that phthalates act through hormone-mediated pathways. The study concludes that phthalates should be considered potential endocrine disruptors with breast cancer risk implications, even at low concentrations, particularly in the presence of estrogen-responsive tissue.
2017
Molec Cell Endocrinol
This study examines the role of environmental estrogen-like endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EEDs) in breast cancer development. EEDs are synthetic compounds that mimic estrogen, and the ones being studied in this paper include polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), bisphenol A (BPA), and phthalates. The results of the study show that of the EEDs tested, only one type of PCB, PCB138, had a strong association with the formation of breast cancer, where as phthalates (and it metabolites) but and BPA showed no strong correlation. Additionaly, the researchers identify that these EEDs promote the proliferation of breast cancer cells, induce epigenetic changes that may increase susceptibility to cancer, as well as alter developmental pathways during critical windows of breast development.
2012
Environ Health Perspect
This study analyzed 213 everyday products, including cosmetics, cleaners, and personal care items, for endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and asthma-related compounds. Testing revealed 55 chemicals, with fragranced products and sunscreens containing the highest levels. Vinyl products were also found to contain significant amounts of bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), a known EDC. Many harmful chemicals were not listed on product labels, limiting consumer ability to avoid them. These results highlight the presence of potentially harmful chemicals in commonly used products, raising concerns about their widespread use in household and personal care items.
2025
Environ Res
A study analyzing 156 commercially available prenatal vitamins, 19 folate/folic acid supplements, and 9 prescription prenatals found widespread contamination with heavy metals and phthalates: 83% of commercial prenatals contained detectable lead (15% exceeding California’s 0.5 μg/daily threshold), 73% contained cadmium, 25% contained DEHP, and 13% contained DBP, with higher contamination associated with calcium and iron content and caplet/capsule/tablet formulations. Prescription prenatals also showed contamination, with 7 of 9 containing detectable lead or cadmium and 33% exceeding the lead threshold, while folate/folic acid supplements showed lower contamination levels. These findings reveal that pregnant women—a population particularly vulnerable to environmental chemical exposures—are being exposed to lead, cadmium, and endocrine-disrupting phthalates through the very supplements intended to support healthy pregnancy. Since prenatal supplementation remains critical for fetal development, pregnant women should prioritize products with third-party verification seals (such as USP, NSF International, or ConsumerLab) which confirm label accuracy, purity, and manufacturing standards, and clear, enforceable regulations requiring frequent testing and strict contamination limits are urgently needed.