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2023
J Endocrinol Invest
A comprehensive literature review examining environmental endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and hormone-related cancers concludes that several EDCs can be definitively classified as carcinogenic, including dioxin and cadmium for breast and thyroid cancer, arsenic and dioxin for prostate cancer, and organochlorines for testicular cancer. The review highlights that fetuses and newborns are most vulnerable to endocrine disruption, with adverse effects potentially manifesting at different ages throughout life, making it difficult to assess the full health impact of EDC exposure. The authors emphasize that EDCs represent a major environmental health issue requiring effective prevention policies, increased public awareness, and protective measures—particularly for pregnant women—along with standardized testing criteria to evaluate the carcinogenic potential of new chemicals before they enter widespread use.
2024
Front Public Health
DDT, a highly persistent organochlorine pesticide comprising mainly p,p’-DDT (77%) and o,p’-DDT (15%), was widely used in agriculture and disease vector control with India being the primary consumer for malaria and leishmaniasis control, though global usage declined from ~5,388 metric tons annually (2001-2007) to ~3,772 metric tons (2008-2014) following the Stockholm Convention. As a xenoestrogen that bioaccumulates in fatty tissues and breast milk, DDT disrupts the endocrine system and enters the human circulatory system, causing reproductive toxicity, increased cancer risk (particularly threatening infants consuming contaminated breast milk), and carcinogenic effects, while also devastating wildlife populations through eggshell thinning in birds like pelicans and eagles. Prolonged DDT exposure causes cumulative toxicity that can alter morphogenesis, induce cancer, and cause reproductive system failure, yet its exceptional persistence and resistance to biodegradation means it continues to accumulate in the food chain and pose ongoing health threats despite reduced usage.
2023
Frontiers
This meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the association between exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), including phthalates and other common environmental pollutants, and breast cancer risk. The study found that certain EDCs—such as p,p′-DDT, chlordane, HCH, and specific PCBs—were positively associated with increased breast cancer risk, while a few compounds like BBP and PFDoDA showed a negative association.
2021
PLOS One
A case-control study in Ethiopia examined 50 breast cancer patients and 50 controls to investigate whether exposure to organochlorine pesticides is a risk factor for breast cancer in a low- and middle-income country context. Ten organochlorine pesticides were detected in participants’ serum, with heptachlor found at highest concentrations; mean serum levels of p,p’-DDE, p,p’-DDT, heptachlor, gamma-chlordane, endosulfan, and dibutyl-chlorendate were significantly higher in breast cancer patients than controls, and p,p’-DDT and gamma-chlordane emerged as significant predictors of breast cancer, with each unit increase in p,p’-DDT concentration doubling breast cancer odds (AOR = 2.03; 95% CI: 1.04-3.97) and each unit increase in gamma-chlordane tripling the odds (AOR = 3.12; 95% CI: 1.19-8.20). These findings suggest that organochlorine pesticide exposure may be a significant breast cancer risk factor in Ethiopia, where environmental contamination from these persistent organic pollutants remains a concern despite global restrictions. The study highlights the public health importance of reducing exposure to these banned or restricted pesticides in developing countries and emphasizes the need for continuous biomonitoring of persistent organic pollutants to inform disease prevention strategies and mitigation measures, particularly as breast cancer incidence rises in low- and middle-income countries where environmental regulation may be less stringent.
2019
J Occup Environ Med
This case control study was conducted among Hispanic women agricultural workers who are exposed to pesticides. Chemicals associated with BC risk included organophosphates, organochlorines, and a phthalimide, Captan. The study concluded that agricultural work may be associated with increased BC risk in female Hispanic farm workers.
2019
Int J Env Res Public Health
A French population-based case-control study (CECILE study) of 695 breast cancer cases and 1,055 controls measured plasma levels of organochlorine compounds (OCs)—p,p’-DDE and PCB153—at the time of diagnosis and used a physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model to estimate PCB153 exposure levels during adolescence (ages 11-20), when breast tissue may be particularly susceptible to hormonal disruption. The study found no clear association between measured OC levels at diagnosis and breast cancer risk overall, though there was a trend toward decreasing breast cancer odds ratios with increasing OC levels in women aged 50 and over; similarly, negative associations were observed between breast cancer and estimated adolescent PCB153 exposure levels. The PBPK modeling revealed that women born after 1960 had the highest estimated PCB153 exposures during adolescence (coinciding with peak environmental contamination), while older women had very low adolescent exposures, yet the unexpected negative associations between OC levels and breast cancer risk remained unexplained and may represent study artifacts. Despite these puzzling findings, the study demonstrates that PBPK models can be valuable tools in epidemiological research for back-estimating exposures during critical developmental windows, which could help address important questions about how early-life environmental exposures influence cancer risk decades later.
2021
Environ Pollut
A study comparing endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC) contamination in Indian food found that while all tested foods—especially dairy and meat—contained organochlorine pesticides, PCBs, PBDEs, and dioxins, overall dietary exposure levels were comparable to or lower than those in Europe despite weaker regulations in India. Urban Delhi markets had higher contamination than peri-urban areas, with organochlorine pesticides being the primary contaminants, yet Indians’ lower meat consumption meant their total EDC exposure was similar to Europeans’ despite some European foods having higher chemical residues. The findings highlight that EDC contamination is a global food system issue driven by international trade of food and animal feed, underscoring the need for internationally harmonized standards on EDC limits in food to protect public health worldwide, as chemical exposures that increase risks for diseases like breast cancer cross borders through the global food supply.