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2022
Am J Clin Nutr
A large French study following over 80,000 women for nearly 9 years found that higher dietary acrylamide intake—a probable carcinogen formed when starchy foods like coffee, French fries, chips, and baked goods are cooked at high temperatures—was associated with a 40% increased risk of premenopausal breast cancer. The association showed a nonlinear pattern, with elevated risk at both moderate and high exposure levels, and was specifically linked to estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer, while no association was found for postmenopausal breast cancer. These findings support the need for continued efforts to reduce acrylamide formation in foods through improved cooking and processing methods, as dietary acrylamide exposure—averaging about 30 micrograms per day in this population—may be a modifiable risk factor for breast cancer, particularly in younger women.
2025
Global Health Res Pol
A meta-analysis of 17 observational studies found that the highest consumption of fast foods and ultra-processed foods (FFs/UPFs) was associated with a 25% increased breast cancer risk compared to the lowest consumption levels. The association was particularly strong in case-control studies and in Latin American populations, and remained significant regardless of sample size or BMI adjustment, though no association was found in cohort studies or when stratified by menopausal status. These findings suggest that diets high in ultra-processed foods—which often contain carcinogenic compounds formed during processing, additives, packaging contaminants, and unhealthy nutrient profiles—may contribute to breast cancer development, highlighting the urgent need for public health strategies and regulatory policies targeting food processing standards, marketing restrictions, improved labeling, and reduced accessibility of ultra-processed foods to reduce cancer risk, particularly as global consumption of these products continues to rise.
2024
Environ Int
A study of 1,031 pregnant women from the socioeconomically diverse CANDLE cohort in the urban South found that ultra-processed foods constituted 38.6% of participants’ diets on average, with each 10% higher dietary proportion of ultra-processed foods associated with 13.1% higher urinary concentrations of DEHP phthalate metabolites, while specific foods like hamburgers, French fries, soda, and cake showed 6-10.5% higher DEHP per standard deviation increase in consumption. Causal mediation analyses revealed that lower income and education levels were associated with 1.9% and 1.4% higher DEHP exposure respectively, mediated through increased ultra-processed food consumption, indicating that ultra-processed foods contribute to socioeconomic disparities in phthalate exposure during pregnancy. The findings demonstrate that consuming ultra-processed foods increases exposure to endocrine-disrupting phthalates from food contact materials, and because socioeconomic barriers can prevent dietary modifications, policies to reduce phthalates in food packaging and processing are needed rather than relying solely on individual dietary recommendations to reduce prenatal phthalate exposures.
2024
BMC Cancer
A case-control study of 133 breast cancer cases and 266 controls in Tehran, Iran used a food frequency questionnaire and the NOVA classification system to examine the association between processed foods (PFs) and ultra-processed foods (UPFs) consumption and breast cancer risk. In the initial model, women in the highest tertile of UPF consumption had nearly double the odds of breast cancer compared to the lowest tertile (OR = 1.93; 95% CI: 1.08-3.45), though this association was no longer significant after additional adjustments in a second model. However, when stratified by menopausal status, premenopausal women in the highest tertile of UPF consumption had more than 3.5 times higher odds of breast cancer (OR = 3.66; 95% CI: 1.33-10.08) in the fully adjusted model. These findings suggest that high consumption of ultra-processed foods may be particularly associated with increased breast cancer risk among premenopausal women, adding to the limited and sometimes contradictory evidence on the relationship between ultra-processed food intake and breast cancer.
2024
Maturitas
A prospective study of 24,892 Spanish women (639 breast cancer cases) from the EPIC cohort examined associations between three dietary patterns (Western, Prudent, Mediterranean) and breast cancer risk over time. Women with moderate-to-high adherence to the Western dietary pattern showed a non-linear 37% increased breast cancer risk compared to those with lowest adherence (HR = 1.37; 95% CI: 1.07-1.77 for third quartile and HR = 1.37; 95% CI: 1.03-1.83 for fourth quartile), with particularly strong associations in postmenopausal women (HR = 1.42; 95% CI: 1.04-1.94 in highest quartile) and for ER+/PR+/HER2- tumors (HR = 1.71; 95% CI: 1.11-2.63 in highest quartile), while Prudent and Mediterranean patterns showed no clear associations. The findings suggest that Western dietary patterns characterized by high-fat dairy, red and processed meats, refined grains, sweets, caloric drinks, and convenience foods may increase breast cancer risk, especially for hormone receptor-positive tumors in postmenopausal women.
2023
Eur J Nutr
A large prospective cohort study of 67,879 French women followed for 21 years found that higher dietary inflammatory potential was associated with a 4% increased breast cancer risk per standard deviation increase in DII score, with women in the highest versus lowest quintile showing a 13% increased risk in a linear dose-response relationship. The association was slightly stronger among non-smokers (6% increased risk per standard deviation) and low alcohol consumers (5% increased risk per standard deviation), suggesting that inflammatory diet effects may be most pronounced in women without other pro-inflammatory exposures. These findings from one of the largest and longest prospective studies provide strong evidence that promoting anti-inflammatory dietary patterns—rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts, and fish while limiting processed foods, red meat, refined carbohydrates, and saturated fats—could contribute meaningfully to breast cancer prevention as part of comprehensive public health strategies.
2022
BMP Nutr Prev Health
A recent study found that ultra-processed food intake is associated with an increased risk of breast cancer in young women across Latin American countries. The study, involving 525 cases and 525 controls, revealed that major contributors to ultra-processed food intake included ready-to-eat meals, sugary beverages, processed meats, and packaged snacks. Ultra-processed foods are rich in unhealthy fats, sugars, and additives that may drive cancer risk. This highlights the need to reduce ultra-processed food consumption and promote healthier, whole-food diets as a preventative measure, especially among young women in Latin America.
2022
Clin Breast Cancer
A case-control study of 150 Iranian women with newly diagnosed breast cancer matched with 150 controls found that women consuming the most pro-inflammatory diets (highest quartile of food-based dietary inflammatory index) had a 138% increased breast cancer risk compared to those with the least inflammatory diets, with the association remaining significant (180% increased risk) after adjusting for confounding factors. The food-based empirical dietary inflammatory index (FDII), which scores dietary patterns based on 27 pre-defined food groups according to their inflammatory potential, showed a clear dose-response relationship with breast cancer risk across quartiles. These findings from a Middle Eastern population reinforce that dietary patterns promoting systemic inflammation substantially increase breast cancer risk, and suggest that practical, food-based dietary modifications—emphasizing anti-inflammatory whole foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts, and fish while limiting pro-inflammatory processed foods, red meat, and refined carbohydrates—could be an effective and culturally adaptable breast cancer prevention strategy.
2022
BMJ
Ultra-processed foods (UPFs), commonly found in ready-to-eat items like packaged snacks, frozen meals, and sodas, are filled with added sugars, unhealthy fats, and harmful chemicals like preservatives and flavor enhancers. These foods are increasingly linked to serious health issues, including obesity and cancer. Studies show that replacing UPFs with whole, unprocessed foods can reduce the risk of disease and improve overall health. The harmful ingredients in these products, such as phthalates and bisphenols, can also disrupt the endocrine system, further increasing the risk of developing serious health problems, including cancer.
2022
Nutr Cancer
An updated meta-analysis of 21 studies including over 346,000 participants found that the most pro-inflammatory diets were associated with a 16% increased breast cancer risk overall, with particularly strong associations among postmenopausal women (13% increased risk), obese women with BMI ≥30 kg/m² (35% increased risk), and populations in developing countries (79% increased risk). The analysis revealed important methodological influences on effect estimates, with stronger associations observed in case-control studies (50% increased risk), studies using hospital-based controls (111% increased risk), and cohort studies with prolonged follow-up (13% increased risk). These findings not only confirm that pro-inflammatory dietary patterns increase breast cancer risk but also demonstrate that the magnitude of association varies substantially by population characteristics and study design, with obesity and postmenopausal status appearing to amplify the carcinogenic effects of inflammatory diets—suggesting that anti-inflammatory dietary interventions may be particularly beneficial for overweight/obese postmenopausal women and populations in developing countries where rapid dietary transitions toward processed, inflammatory foods are occurring.
2021
Eur J Epidemiol
A large prospective study of 318,686 European women followed for 14 years found that consuming a pro-inflammatory diet was associated with a 4% increased breast cancer risk per standard deviation increase in inflammatory diet score, with women in the most pro-inflammatory diet group showing a 12% increased risk compared to those consuming the least inflammatory diets. The association was particularly strong in premenopausal women (8% increased risk per standard deviation), and notably, the pro-inflammatory diet effect was independent of body mass index, physical activity, and alcohol consumption, suggesting that dietary inflammation contributes to breast cancer risk through pathways distinct from these other established risk factors. The consistent associations across all hormone receptor-defined breast cancer subtypes suggest that dietary inflammation may promote breast cancer through non-hormonal mechanisms, reinforcing the importance of anti-inflammatory dietary patterns—rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and omega-3 fatty acids while limiting processed foods, red meat, and refined carbohydrates—as a modifiable strategy for breast cancer prevention across all women, particularly those still premenopausal.
2020
Nutrients
A prospective cohort study of 10,930 Spanish female university graduates in the SUN (“Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra”) project examined whether adherence to the 2018 World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research (WCRF/AICR) cancer prevention recommendations was associated with breast cancer risk. The study used an 8-item score measuring compliance with recommendations including body fat, physical activity, consumption of wholegrains/vegetables/fruit/beans, avoidance of fast foods and processed meats, limited sugar-sweetened drinks and alcohol, and breastfeeding. While no significant association was found for overall breast cancer risk, women who scored highest on adherence (>5 points vs. ≤3 points) had a 73% reduced risk of postmenopausal breast cancer after adjusting for other variables. The findings suggest that following multiple WCRF/AICR lifestyle and nutritional recommendations together may significantly reduce postmenopausal breast cancer risk through their combined protective effects.
2019
Environ Int
Advanced glycation end products (AGEs), formed during the processing of foods at high temperatures, act as endocrine disruptors and are linked to various health risks. These compounds accumulate in the body over time, promoting oxidative stress, aging, diabetes, and other degenerative diseases. Processed foods, often convenient and inexpensive, are significant sources of AGEs, contributing to hormonal disruption and potential long-term health effects. Choosing minimally processed, whole foods can help reduce exposure to these harmful compounds and support overall hormonal balance, reinforcing the importance of food quality in maintaining long-term health and well-being.
2019
Eur J Clinic Nutr
A meta-analysis of seven observational studies including 319,993 participants found that women consuming the most pro-inflammatory diets (highest DII scores) had a 25% increased breast cancer risk compared to those with the least inflammatory diets, with particularly strong associations observed in postmenopausal women (15% increased risk) and hormone receptor-negative breast cancers (36% increased risk). The association varied by geography, showing dramatically elevated risk in Asian populations (130% increase) and more modest effects in European populations (26% increase), while case-control studies showed stronger associations (68% increase) than cohort studies. These findings reinforce that dietary patterns promoting chronic systemic inflammation—typically characterized by high intake of refined carbohydrates, red/processed meats, and trans fats with low intake of fruits, vegetables, and omega-3 fatty acids—contribute meaningfully to breast cancer risk, supporting dietary interventions focused on anti-inflammatory foods as a practical prevention strategy.
2018
Eur J Obstet Gynecol Repod Biol
A hospital-based case-control study of 134 breast cancer cases and 267 controls in Tehran, Iran used a 168-item food frequency questionnaire and factor analysis to identify two major dietary patterns and assess their association with breast cancer risk. The “healthy” pattern (high in fruits, vegetables, seeds, legumes, fish, whole grains, and liquid/olive oils, with low salt) showed no significant association with breast cancer (OR: 0.83), while the “unhealthy” pattern (high in sweets, soft drinks, mayonnaise, solid oils, processed meat, fried/boiled potatoes, and salt) was associated with significantly increased breast cancer risk in the highest versus lowest quartile (OR: 2.21; 95% CI: 1.04-4.69). When stratified by menopausal status, the unhealthy dietary pattern showed a particularly strong association with breast cancer risk among postmenopausal women (OR: 3.56; 95% CI: 1.16-10.95), but not premenopausal women. These findings suggest that overall dietary patterns—rather than individual nutrients or foods—may be important determinants of breast cancer risk, with an unhealthy Western-style diet pattern characterized by processed foods, added sugars, unhealthy fats, and high salt intake potentially more than doubling breast cancer risk, especially in postmenopausal Iranian women.
2018
Nutr Cancer
A case-control study of 136 breast cancer patients and 272 controls in Iran found that women consuming the most pro-inflammatory diets (highest quartile of DII scores) had a 164% increased breast cancer risk compared to those with the least inflammatory diets, with the association particularly striking among premenopausal women who showed a 451% increased risk. No association was detected in postmenopausal women, contrasting with findings from other studies that have typically shown stronger effects in postmenopausal populations. These findings suggest that pro-inflammatory dietary patterns may be especially harmful during premenopausal years when breast tissue is more metabolically active and hormone-responsive, highlighting the potential importance of anti-inflammatory dietary interventions—emphasizing whole grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, and fish while limiting processed foods, red meat, and refined carbohydrates—as a targeted prevention strategy for younger women at risk of breast cancer.
2018
Maturitas
A Spanish population-based case-control study of 1,006 breast cancer cases and 1,370 controls found that high total meat intake was associated with a 39% increased breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women, with processed/cured meat showing a 47% increased risk overall and a striking 152% increased risk specifically for triple-negative breast cancers. Cooking methods and doneness preferences significantly modified risk: well-done red meat was associated with 62% increased risk and stewed red meat with 49% increased risk (particularly for hormone receptor-positive tumors), while pan-fried or breaded white meat showed 38% increased overall risk and 78% increased risk in premenopausal women. These findings suggest that breast cancer risk could be reduced not only by limiting meat consumption—especially processed meats—but also by modifying cooking practices to avoid well-done or high-temperature cooking methods that generate carcinogenic compounds like heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Dietary Inflammatory Potential Score and Risk of Breast Cancer: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.
2018
Clinic Breast Cancer
A systematic review and meta-analysis of 9 studies including 296,102 participants found that higher dietary inflammatory potential was associated with a 14% increased breast cancer risk overall, though the association varied by study design with case-control studies showing stronger effects (63% increased risk, not statistically significant) than cohort studies (4% increased risk, not significant). The pooled analysis across all study types showed a significant positive association between pro-inflammatory diets and breast cancer, suggesting that dietary modifications to reduce inflammatory potential could meaningfully reduce breast cancer risk. These findings reinforce that chronic low-grade inflammation driven by diet—characterized by high intake of refined carbohydrates, red and processed meats, and trans fats with low consumption of anti-inflammatory foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and omega-3 fatty acids—contributes to breast carcinogenesis, supporting dietary pattern interventions focused on anti-inflammatory foods as an accessible and modifiable prevention strategy for women.
2022
PLOS Med
A large French study following nearly 103,000 adults for nearly 8 years found that people who consumed higher amounts of artificial sweeteners—particularly aspartame and acesulfame-K found in diet sodas and many processed foods—had a 13-15% increased risk of cancer overall, with specific increases in breast cancer and obesity-related cancers. The research, which carefully tracked detailed dietary records and controlled for multiple lifestyle factors, showed aspartame was associated with a 22% higher breast cancer risk among higher consumers compared to non-consumers. While the study has some limitations including potential confounding factors, these findings add to growing concerns about artificial sweetener safety and support the need for regulatory agencies to re-evaluate the safety of these widely used food additives found in thousands of products worldwide.